Ruth A. Baer - The Consciousness Library

Defining Mindfulness: A Review of Existing Definitions and Suggested Refinements

Mindfulness 2025 Ryad Chems-Maarif, Kate Cavanagh, Ruth A. Baer et al.

Mindfulness research is hampered by the multiplicity of definitions of mindfulness. This heterogeneity, as reflected in the variability of mindfulness scales, limits the ability to generalize findings and hinders attempts to synthesize available studies. This paper explores traditional and contemporary definitions of mindfulness, aiming to extract core components and provide a refined and...

DOI: 10.1007/s12671-024-02507-2 Full text

Universal Mindfulness Training in Schools for Adolescents: a Scoping Review and Conceptual Model of Moderators, Mediators, and Implementation Factors

Prevention Science August 1, 2022 Kate Tudor, Shannon Maloney, Anam Raja et al.

There is evidence that universal school-based mindfulness training (SBMT) can have positive effects for young people. However, it is unknown who benefits most from such training, how training exerts effects, and how implementation impacts effects. This study aimed to provide an overview of the evidence on the mediators, moderators, and implementation factors of SBMT, and propose a conceptual...

DOI: 10.1007/s11121-022-01361-9 Full text Mindfulness School-based programmes Adolescence Universal interventions +4

What Next After MBSR/MBCT? An Open Trial of an 8-Week Follow-on Program Exploring Mindfulness of Feeling Tone (vedanā)

Mindfulness July 7, 2022 J. Williams, Ruth A. Baer, M. Batchelor et al.

The effectiveness of mindfulness-based programs (MBPs) has been established in many randomized controlled trials. However, effect sizes are often modest, and there remains ample scope to improve their effectiveness. One approach to this challenge is to offer a “follow-on” course to people who have completed an MBP and are interested in further skill development. We developed and tested a new...

DOI: 10.1007/s12671-022-01929-0 Full text

The Questionnaire on Self-Transcendence (QUEST): A Measure of Trait Self-Transcendence Informed by Contextual Cognitive Behavioral Therapies.

Assessment April 1, 2022 Joel N Fishbein, Ruth A. Baer, Joshua Correll et al. 13 citations

Self-transcendence is thought to increase well-being and is implicitly promoted in contextual cognitive behavioral therapies (CCBTs). This study conceptualizes, develops, and validates the first comprehensive CCBT-informed self-transcendence questionnaire. Using a CCBT-informed theory, we propose four self-transcendence facets: distancing oneself from mental content, distinguishing an observer...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191120980061 Full text Mindfulness Cognitive behavior therapy Decentering Measure development +2

Frequency of Self-reported Unpleasant Events and Harm in a Mindfulness-Based Program in Two General Population Samples

Mindfulness December 2, 2020 Ruth A. Baer, Catherine Crane, Jesus Montero-Marin et al.

Evidence-based mindfulness programs have well-established benefits, but the potential for harmful effects is understudied. We explored the frequency and severity of unpleasant experiences and harm in two nonclinical samples participating in an adaptation of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for the general population. Study 1 included 84 schoolteachers; study 2 included 74 university...

DOI: 10.1007/s12671-020-01547-8 Full text

Assessment of mindfulness by self-report.

Current Opinion in Psychology November 10, 2018 Ruth A. Baer

Assessment of mindfulness is essential to understanding its relationships with psychological functioning. Currently, mindfulness is most often assessed with self-report questionnaires. Although additional work is required, mindfulness questionnaires have reasonable psychometric properties and are making important contributions to the understanding of mindfulness and its effects on health and...

DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.10.015 Full text

Are People Mindful in Different Ways? Disentangling the Quantity and Quality of Mindfulness in Latent Profiles and Exploring Their Links to Mental Health and Life Effectiveness

European Journal of Personality June 15, 2017 Baljinder K Sahdra, Joseph Ciarrochi, Philip D. Parker et al. 91 citations

We sought to disambiguate the quantitative and qualitative components of mindfulness profiles, examine whether including ‘nonattachment’ as a subcomponent of mindfulness alters the profiles, and evaluate the extent to which the person–centred approach to understanding mindfulness adds predictive power beyond a more parsimonious variable–centred approach. Using data from a nationally...

DOI: 10.1002/per.2108 Mindfulness Mental health Psychological intervention Latent variable +8

Brief mindfulness training reduces salivary IL-6 and TNF-α in young women with depressive symptomatology.

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology June 9, 2016 Erin C. Walsh, Tory A. Eisenlohr‐Moul, Ruth A. Baer 72 citations

OBJECTIVE: Pro-inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in the pathophysiology and maintenance of depression. This study investigated the effects of a brief mindfulness intervention on salivary pro-inflammatory correlates of depression (IL-6, TNF-α) and self-reported symptoms of depression in college women. METHODS: Sixty-four females with a cut score of ≥16 on the Center for Epidemiological...

DOI: 10.1037/ccp0000122 Mindfulness Depression economics Psycinfo Clinical psychology +1

Contemplating Mindfulness at Work

Journal of Management November 19, 2015 Darren Good, Christopher Lyddy, Theresa M. Glomb et al. 1,007 citations

Mindfulness research activity is surging within organizational science. Emerging evidence across multiple fields suggests that mindfulness is fundamentally connected to many aspects of workplace functioning, but this knowledge base has not been systematically integrated to date. This review coalesces the burgeoning body of mindfulness scholarship into a framework to guide mainstream management...

DOI: 10.1177/0149206315617003 Mindfulness Mainstream Scholarship Cognition +2

Weekly Change in Mindfulness and Perceived Stress in a Mindfulness‐Based Stress Reduction Program

Journal of Clinical Psychology July 1, 2012 Ruth A. Baer, James Carmody, Matthew Hunsinger

ObjectiveThe purpose of the study was to examine weekly change in self‐reported mindfulness and perceived stress in participants who completed an 8‐week course in mindfulness‐based stress reduction (MBSR).MethodParticipants were 87 adults with problematic levels of stress related to chronic illness, chronic pain, and other life circumstances (mean age = 49 years, 67% female) participating in...

DOI: 10.1002/jclp.21865

The “What” and the “How” of Dispositional Mindfulness

Assessment May 14, 2012 Tory A. Eisenlohr‐Moul, Erin C. Walsh, Richard Charnigo et al. 139 citations

Although self-report measures of dispositional mindfulness have good psychometric properties, a few studies have shown unexpected positive correlations between substance use and mindfulness scales measuring observation of present-moment experience. The current study tested the hypothesis that the relationship between present-moment observation and substance use is moderated by the tendency to...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191112446658 Mindfulness Facet psychology Personality Clinical psychology +1

Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators

The Journal of Positive Psychology April 11, 2012 Ruth A. Baer, Emily L. B. Lykins, Jessica R. Peters 391 citations

Mindfulness training has well-documented effects on psychological health. Recent findings suggest that increases in both mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate these outcomes; however, their separate and combined effects are rarely examined in the same participants. This study investigated cross-sectional relationships between self-reported mindfulness, self-compassion, meditation...

DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2012.674548 Self-compassion Clinical psychology Mindfulness meditation Well-being +1

Measuring mindfulness

Contemporary Buddhism May 1, 2011 Ruth A. Baer 271 citations

The commitment to evidence-based practice in clinical psychology requires scientific investigation of the effects of treatment and mechanisms of change. Empirical evidence suggests that mindfulness-based treatments provide clinically meaningful improvement for people suffering from many important problems, including depression, anxiety, pain, and stress. However, the processes of change that...

DOI: 10.1080/14639947.2011.564842 Mindfulness Anxiety Buddhism Meditation +8

Assessing mindfulness in children and adolescents: Development and validation of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM).

Psychological Assessment April 11, 2011 Laurie A. Greco, Ruth A. Baer, Gregory T. Smith 696 citations

This article presents 4 studies (N = 1,413) describing the development and validation of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM). In Study 1 (n = 428), the authors determined procedures for item development and examined comprehensibility of the initial 25 items. In Study 2 (n = 334), they reduced the initial item pool from 25 to 10 items through exploratory factor analysis. Study 3...

DOI: 10.1037/a0022819 Mindfulness Developmental psychology Competence human resources Clinical psychology +2

Differential Item Functioning on the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire Is Minimal in Demographically Matched Meditators and Nonmeditators

Assessment December 30, 2010 Ruth A. Baer, Douglas B. Samuel, Emily L. B. Lykins 95 citations

A recent study of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire reported high levels of differential item functioning (DIF) for 18 of its 39 items in meditating and nonmeditating samples that were not demographically matched. In particular, meditators were more likely to endorse positively worded items whereas nonmeditators were more likely to deny negatively worded (reverse-scored) items. The...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191110392498 Mindfulness Facet psychology Differential item functioning Clinical psychology +4

Mindfulness and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Commentary on Harrington and Pickles

Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy November 1, 2009 Ruth A. Baer, Shannon Sauer

Harrington and Pickles (this issue) raise interesting and important questions about the nature of mindfulness and its relationships to scientific clinical psychology and cognitive behavioral theory and treatment. In this commentary, we address two primary questions. First, is mindfulness a meaningful concept within scientific clinical psychology or is it religious or mystical? Second, is...

DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.23.4.324

Psychological Functioning in a Sample of Long-Term Practitioners of Mindfulness Meditation

Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy August 1, 2009 Emily L. B. Lykins, Ruth A. Baer

Although mindfulness meditation traditionally is viewed as a lifelong practice, much current knowledge about its effects is based on short-term practitioners who have participated in mindfulness-based treatment. In the current study, long-term meditators and demographically similar nonmeditators completed self-report measures of constructs expected to be related to the practice of mindfulness...

DOI: 10.1891/0889-8391.23.3.226

How long does a mindfulness‐based stress reduction program need to be? A review of class contact hours and effect sizes for psychological distress

Journal of Clinical Psychology March 23, 2009 James Carmody, Ruth A. Baer 563 citations

The mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program was designed to be long enough for participants to grasp the principles of self-regulation through mindfulness and develop skill and autonomy in mindfulness practice. It traditionally consists of 26 hours of session time including eight classes of 2-1/2 hours and an all-day class. The circumstances of some groups exclude them from...

DOI: 10.1002/jclp.20555 Mindfulness-based stress reduction Distress Clinical psychology Autonomy +1

An empirical study of the mechanisms of mindfulness in a mindfulness‐based stress reduction program

Journal of Clinical Psychology March 6, 2009 James Carmody, Ruth A. Baer, Emily L. B. Lykins et al. 528 citations

S. L. Shapiro and colleagues (2006) have described a testable theory of the mechanisms of mindfulness and how it affects positive change. They describe a model in which mindfulness training leads to a fundamental change in relationship to experience (reperceiving), which leads to changes in self-regulation, values clarification, cognitive and behavioral flexibility, and exposure. These four...

DOI: 10.1002/jclp.20579

Self-Focused Attention and Mechanisms of Change in Mindfulness-Based Treatment

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2009 Ruth A. Baer 185 citations

The empirical literature provides increasing support for the efficacy of mindfulness training in the treatment of numerous problems and disorders. However, fewer studies have examined the mechanisms through which these beneficial outcomes are obtained. This article summarizes recent research examining three primary questions related to the mechanisms underlying mindfulness-based treatments: do...

DOI: 10.1080/16506070902980703 Mindfulness Rumination Psychotherapist Clinical psychology +1

Construct Validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in Meditating and Nonmeditating Samples

Assessment February 29, 2008 Ruth A. Baer, Gregory T. Smith, Emily L. B. Lykins et al. 2,933 citations

Previous research on assessment of mindfulness by self-report suggests that it may include five component skills: observing, describing, acting with awareness, nonjudging of inner experience, and nonreactivity to inner experience. These elements of mindfulness can be measured with the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). The authors investigated several aspects of the construct validity...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191107313003

Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and well-being in a mindfulness-based stress reduction program.

Journal of behavioral medicine February 2008 James Carmody, Ruth A Baer

Relationships were investigated between home practice of mindfulness meditation exercises and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms, perceived stress, and psychological well-being in a sample of 174 adults in a clinical Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program. This is an 8- session group program for individuals dealing with stress-related problems, illness,...

DOI: 10.1007/s10865-007-9130-7 Full text

Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness

Assessment January 27, 2006 Ruth A. Baer, Gregory T. Smith, Jaclyn Hopkins et al. 7,526 citations

The authors examine the facet structure of mindfulness using five recently developed mindfulness questionnaires. Two large samples of undergraduate students completed mindfulness questionnaires and measures of other constructs. Psychometric properties of the mindfulness questionnaires were examined, including internal consistency and convergent and discriminant relationships with other...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191105283504

Assessment of Mindfulness by Self-Report

Assessment September 1, 2004 Ruth A. Baer, Gregory T. Smith, Kristin B. Allen 2,283 citations

A self-report inventory for the assessment of mindfulness skills was developed, and its psychometric characteristics and relationships with other constructs were examined. Participants included three samples of undergraduate students and a sample of outpatients with borderline personality disorder Based on discussions of mindfulness in the current literature, four mindfulness skills were...

DOI: 10.1177/1073191104268029 Mindfulness Anxiety Alexithymia Experiential avoidance +5

Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review.

Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 2003 Ruth A. Baer 4,203 citations

Interventions based on training in mindfulness skills are becoming increasingly popular. Mindfulness involves intentionally bringing one’s attention to the internal and external experiences occurring in the present moment, and is often taught through a variety of meditation exercises. This review summarizes conceptual approaches to mindfulness and empirical research on the utility of...

DOI: 10.1093/clipsy.bpg015

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