Sleep
June 29, 2012
Martin Dresler, Renate Wehrle, Victor I. Spoormaker et al.
271 citations
Lucid dreaming—being aware that one is dreaming—is associated with reactivation of brain areas that are normally deactivated during REM sleep. In one experienced lucid dreamer who had two episodes of verified lucid REM sleep long enough for fMRI analysis, the bilateral precuneus, cuneus, parietal lobules, and prefrontal and occipito-temporal cortices showed strong activation compared with non-lucid REM sleep. This pattern may explain the return of reflective cognitive abilities that characterize lucid dreaming.
Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
March 14, 2019
Benjamin Baird, Sérgio Mota-Rolim, Martin Dresler
196 citations
Lucid dreaming is becoming aware that one is dreaming while still asleep. This review of neuroscientific studies—including electroencephalographic, neuroimaging, brain lesion, pharmacological, and brain stimulation research—finds that evidence is limited and often mixed. Electroencephalographic studies are mostly underpowered and show inconsistent results. Neuroimaging data are scant but suggest involvement of prefrontal and parietal regions. Combining mental-set training with cholinergic stimulation shows promise for inducing lucid dreams, while electrical brain stimulation's effectiveness remains unclear. The review also covers best-practice measurement strategies for sleep laboratories. Lucid dreaming has clinical and scientific applications, especially for studying consciousness, but further research with larger samples and refined methods is needed.
Current biology : CB
April 12, 2021
Karen R Konkoly, Kristoffer Appel, Emma Chabani et al.
126 citations
People who are asleep and having a lucid dream—aware that they are dreaming—can perceive questions from an experimenter and answer them in real time using eye movements and facial muscle contractions. In a study of 36 individuals during REM sleep, including frequent lucid dreamers, a novice, and a patient with narcolepsy, participants performed perceptual analysis of new information, held information in working memory, computed simple answers, and gave volitional replies. Correct answers occurred on 29 occasions across 6 individuals, documented by four independent laboratories. This two-way communication channel allows real-time interrogation of dream cognition and characteristics.
Journal of Neuroscience
January 21, 2015
Elisa Filevich, Martin Dresler, Timothy R. Brick et al.
89 citations
People who frequently have lucid dreams—dreams in which they know they are dreaming—show structural and functional differences in a brain region linked to self-reflection and thought monitoring. The frontopolar cortex (BA9/10) contained more gray matter in high-lucidity dreamers compared with low-lucidity dreamers, and this same area showed stronger activity during a thought-monitoring task in the high-lucidity group. The findings suggest that lucid dreaming and metacognitive abilities share common neural systems, offering insight into how higher-order consciousness can arise during sleep.
Sleep
April 30, 2015
Michael Rak, P. Beitinger, Axel Steiger et al.
56 citations
People with narcolepsy recall dreams and nightmares significantly more often than healthy controls, and they also experience lucid dreaming—awareness of dreaming during a dream—at a much higher rate. Among 60 narcolepsy patients and 919 controls, narcolepsy patients reported roughly double the frequency of dream recall and nightmares, and their lucid dreaming frequency was about four times higher. Most narcolepsy patients who had experienced lucid dreaming said it helped relieve the distress from nightmares. Medication did not affect lucid dreaming frequency, though it did reduce dream recall and nightmare frequency.
Frontiers in Psychology
January 1, 2014
Martin Dresler, Leandra Eibl, Christian Fischer et al.
52 citations
In frequent lucid dreamers, the experience of volition—the sense of control over one's actions—is similar during lucid dreaming and wakefulness, and both are significantly higher than during non-lucid dreaming. However, specific aspects differ: planning ability is strongest while awake, intention enactment is strongest during lucid dreaming, and self-determination is equally strong during wakefulness and lucid dreaming. These findings confirm that different higher-order aspects of consciousness, such as volition, are expressed differently across conscious states.
Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences
February 1, 2021
Jarrod Gott, Leonore Bovy, Emma Peters et al.
33 citations
Lucid dreaming—being aware that one is dreaming while still asleep—is rare but can be trained by regularly questioning whether current experience is real or a dream. Virtual reality (VR) scenarios containing dream-like elements enhanced this training. Over four weeks, volunteers who received VR-assisted lucid dreaming training showed significantly greater increases in lucid dreaming than those who received no training. Eye-signal-verified lucid dreams during polysomnography supported these behavioral results. Potential mechanisms include synthetic dream-like experiences, incorporation of VR content into dream imagery as memory cues, and dissociative effects of VR that may amplify lucid dreaming training during wakefulness.
Consciousness and Cognition
September 1, 2020
Jarrod Gott, Michael Rak, Leonore Bovy et al.
23 citations
Lucid dreaming, where people experience waking-like self-reflection during dreams, is linked to more wake-like brain activity in the prefrontal cortex. This multi-centre study, combining four investigations, examined whether fragmented sleep increases the chance of lucid dreaming. Results showed that self-reported awakenings, polyphasic sleep schedules, and physiologically measured wake-REM sleep transitions were associated with lucid dreaming. However, neither self-assessed sleep quality nor physiologically measured numbers of awakenings showed an association. The findings suggest a nuanced relationship, where certain types of sleep fragmentation, but not all, may relate to lucid dreaming, and the authors discuss possible causal mechanisms.
Consciousness and Cognition
January 1, 2024
Jarrod Gott, Sina Stücker, Philipp Kanske et al.
22 citations
Acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in cognition and REM sleep regulation, may play a role in lucid dreaming—a state where metacognitive awareness returns during sleep. Recent studies using acetylcholinesterase inhibitors suggest a link, but the causal mechanisms remain unknown. This review examines theories connecting acetylcholine and metacognition across wakefulness and sleep, analyzing the phenomenon at microscopic, mesoscopic, and macroscopic levels. It develops exploratory hypotheses to guide future research on how acetylcholine receptor activity affects metacognition.
May 16, 2023
William Wong, Kátia C. Andrade, Thomas Andrillon et al.
21 citations
preprint
A new open-access database, DREAM, combines sleep magneto/electroencephalography (M/EEG) recordings with standardized dream reports to enable large-scale neurocognitive research on dreaming. The initial release includes 20 datasets from 561 participants and 2649 awakenings, each with at least 20 seconds of high-frequency M/EEG data and a classification of the subject's experience. Analyses demonstrate that features extracted from EEG can predict whether a person reports having had a conscious experience during both REM and NREM sleep. The database aims to overcome the limitations of small sample sizes and methodological variability in dream research, allowing new questions to be addressed at a scale unattainable by individual labs.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
August 1, 2024
Teresa Campillo-Ferrer, Adriana Alcaraz-Sánchez, Ema Demšar et al.
14 citations
Out-of-body experiences (OBEs), where a person feels located outside their physical body, often occur spontaneously near or during sleep. This review examines sleep-related OBEs and proposes that maintaining consciousness during the transition from wakefulness to REM sleep (sleep-onset REM periods) may enable them. A new conceptual model is introduced to distinguish sleep-related OBEs from similar states like lucid dreaming and sleep paralysis, and to suggest possible brain activity patterns (polysomnographic features) underlying them. The predictive coding framework is applied to connect sleep-related OBEs with those occurring during wakefulness.
Medical Hypotheses
March 27, 2023
Emma Peters, Sanne Golembiewski, Daniel Erlacher et al.
12 citations
Lucid dreaming—becoming aware of a dream while asleep—can be used to practice motor skills, potentially improving real-world performance. The brain generates an immersive, VR-like environment with realistic body sensations during lucid dreams. Experimental studies show promising performance gains after lucid dreaming motor practice, with similarities in brain activity, eye movements, muscle activity, and autonomic responses to physical practice. Surveys indicate athletes already incorporate lucid dreaming into training. Placebo effects and increased motivation after practice need further investigation. Challenges such as the rarity of lucid dreams, lack of proper training, and limited control over dream content must be addressed to strengthen this approach for broader use.
Nature Communications
August 13, 2025
William Wong, Rubén Herzog, Kátia Cristine Andrade et al.
10 citations
A new open database, the DREAM database, combines standardized sleep magneto/electroencephalography (M/EEG) recordings with dream reports from 505 participants across 20 datasets, totaling 2,643 awakenings. Each awakening includes at least 20 seconds of high-resolution sleep EEG (≥100 Hz, ≥2 electrodes) and a classification of the sleeper's reported experience. Analyses showed that reports of conscious experiences during sleep can be predicted from objective EEG features in both REM and NREM sleep. The database aims to overcome limitations of small sample sizes and methodological variability in dream research, enabling larger-scale investigations of the neurocognitive basis of dreaming.
Scientific Reports
September 21, 2022
Sofia Tzioridou, Martin Dresler, Kristian Sandberg et al.
10 citations
Nightmares are less frequent and less distressing for people who practice mindful acceptance—the ability to experience thoughts and feelings without judgment—rather than merely mindful presence, or paying attention to the present moment. Two studies, one with 338 participants and another with 187 frequent lucid dreamers who used meditation and lucid dream induction techniques, found that acceptance was more strongly linked to fewer nightmares and less nightmare distress than presence. People with high meditation expertise and practice of lucid dreaming techniques reported the lowest nightmare frequency. Among frequent lucid dreamers, more lucid dreaming was associated with higher mindfulness. The findings suggest that the two facets of mindfulness play distinct roles in dream quality, with potential clinical applications.
The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience
May 14, 2025
Çağatay Demirel, Jarrod Gott, Kristoffer Appel et al.
8 citations
Lucid dreaming, where a person becomes aware they are dreaming, is linked to REM sleep. To overcome previous research limitations, a new preprocessing pipeline was applied to pooled EEG data from multiple labs. Sensor-level differences between lucid and nonlucid REM sleep were minimal, but source-level analysis revealed reduced beta power (12-30 Hz) in right central and parietal areas, including the temporoparietal junction, during lucid dreaming. Alpha-band (8-12 Hz) connectivity increased compared to nonlucid REM sleep. During eye signaling of lucidity, gamma1 power (30-36 Hz) increased in right temporo-occipital regions, including the precuneus, and interhemispheric gamma1 connectivity rose. These patterns suggest shifts in network communication underlying changes in perception, self-awareness, and cognitive control.
Inflammatory bowel diseases
July 14, 2025
Milou M Ter Avest, Marloes J. Huijbers, Carmen S Horjus et al.
6 citations
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) added to usual care reduces psychological distress and improves well-being in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) who are in remission but experiencing at least mild distress. In a randomized trial with 142 participants, those receiving group MBCT showed a moderate reduction in distress (effect size -0.61) and improved well-being (0.40) after the intervention, with effects strengthening over time. Objective sleep measures indicated less total sleep time but a higher proportion of deep sleep. Although flare rates did not differ, fecal calprotectin levels, a marker of gut inflammation, decreased in the MBCT group over the follow-up period (effect size -0.49). MBCT may benefit both psychological and biological aspects of IBD.
Neurosci Biobehav Rev
January 14, 2025
Sofia Tzioridou, Teresa Campillo-Ferrer, Jorge Cañas-Martín et al.
5 citations
Lucid dreaming, where the dreamer becomes aware of being in a dream and often gains control over it, can occur spontaneously or be induced by behavioral, cognitive, or technological methods. This review examines evidence linking lucid dreaming to conditions such as nightmare disorder, depression, anxiety, psychosis, and dissociative states, and discusses possible neurobiological bases for these associations. It also explores contemplative sleep practices like Dream/Sleep Yoga and Yoga Nidrâ that train lucid states during sleep. Potential drawbacks of lucid dreaming interventions are outlined, along with impacts on individuals without clinical conditions, contributing to understanding its therapeutic possibilities and implications.
bioRxiv Preprint Server
April 9, 2024
Çağatay Demirel, Jarrod Gott, Kristoffer Appel et al.
2 citations
preprint
Lucid dreaming, a state of conscious awareness during REM sleep, is associated with specific brain activity patterns. Compared to non-lucid REM sleep, EEG sensor-level differences were few. However, source-level analysis revealed increased gamma1 power (30-36 Hz) in left-hemispheric temporal areas during lucid dreaming, potentially reflecting verbal insight processes, and in right temporo-occipital regions including the precuneus around the onset of lucid eye signaling, linked to self-referential thinking. Beta power (12-30 Hz) decreased in right central and parietal areas including the temporo-parietal junction, possibly related to conscious reality assessment. Alpha-band (8-12 Hz) functional connectivity increased, contrasting with psychedelic states and highlighting enhanced self-awareness.
March 6, 2023
Claudia Picard-Deland, Giulio Bernardi, Lisa Genzel et al.
2 citations
preprint
Memory traces formed during waking hours are spontaneously reactivated during sleep, a phenomenon first observed in the 1990s that has been proposed as the neural basis for dreaming. Recent animal and human studies, along with advances in sleep and dream engineering, show both similarities and differences between memory reactivations and dream experiences. The authors argue that memory reactivations may influence subjective experiences across various states of consciousness but are unlikely to be directly experienced as dreams. They highlight shortcomings in current research methods and propose new approaches to empirically investigate the relationship between memory reactivation and dreaming.
January 1, 2015
Martin Dresler
2 citations
Sleep and dreaming serve multiple biological functions, including memory consolidation and integration, emotion regulation, creativity and problem solving, and preparation for waking life. Dreaming can be understood as a virtual reality in which the dreamer interacts with a simulated environment and simulated avatars. Among these functions, threat simulation and social simulation uniquely explain a striking feature of dream phenomenology: the dreamer's obliviousness to their true state of mind.
SLEEP Advances
July 8, 2026
Emma Peters, Xinlin Wang, Johanna Heitmann et al.
Targeted bodily stimulation during REM sleep can affect dream lucidity, but the effects depend on the type of stimulation. Electrical muscle stimulation did not increase lucid awareness, whereas galvanic vestibular stimulation was associated with higher lucidity ratings and questionnaire scores, even though the stimulation was rarely incorporated into dream content directly. The findings suggest that modulating the sense of bodily self during REM sleep may enhance reflective awareness without requiring sensory incorporation into dreams. Non-invasive vestibular stimulation may offer a new way to study lucid dreaming mechanisms.
bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)
May 22, 2026
Somayeh Ataei, Mahdad Jafarzade Esfahani, Nikolai Axmacher et al.
Dream recall varies greatly between people and from night to night. Nocturnal awakenings are thought to help encode and retrieve dreams, but it was unclear whether the frequency, duration, sleep stage, or timing of awakenings matters most. Analyzing two cohorts (708 adults across three waves and 124 adults with high dream recall across multiple nights), trait-level dream recall was associated with a specific pattern: more habitual long REM awakenings and short NREM awakenings. State-level analysis showed that nights with more short and medium REM awakenings increased the likelihood of morning dream recall, while more long REM awakenings increased the likelihood of recalling dream content. Findings support arousal-retrieval and functional state-shift models with important nuances.
Consciousness and Cognition
April 13, 2026
Xinlin Wang, Emma Peters, Johannes Strelen et al.
During lucid dreaming, the dreamer is aware they are dreaming. To identify brain network activity linked to this conscious experience, 39 sleep recordings (lucid vs. non-lucid REM sleep) from 8 lucid dreamers were analyzed using EEG microstate analysis. Microstates A and G dominated during lucid REM, while microstates B, C, and D dominated during non-lucid REM. These microstates were associated with emotional processing (A), visual processing (B), salience network activity (C), executive functions (D), and the default mode network (G). Results suggest lucidity involves increased self-visualization, metacognition, and executive processing, with decreased emotional processing and default mode network activity, indicating distinct network dynamics in lucid REM sleep.
Neuron
April 3, 2024
Paul Zerr, Nico Adelhöfer, Martin Dresler
Lucid dreaming, a state in which a person becomes aware they are dreaming and can sometimes control the dream, is both rare and hard to study because the state is unstable. New developments in wearable brain-monitoring devices, large research partnerships, citizen science projects, and artificial intelligence are making it easier to decode what happens in the brain during lucid dreams.
Current Issues in Sport Science
February 7, 2024
Emma Peters, Xinlin Wang, Martin Dresler et al.
Three types of bodily stimulation—electrical forearm muscle stimulation (EMS), galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS), and haptic vibration (HS)—were applied during REM sleep to test how often each is incorporated into dream content. Across three nights, 23.2% of EMS dreams and 23.5% of HS dreams included arm movement, while balance-related activity appeared in roughly 6–8% of dreams for all three methods. Tactile or somatosensory sensations occurred in 13.6% of EMS dreams but in none of the GVS dreams. After accounting for sham stimulation, EMS produced the strongest dream incorporation, particularly for tactile sensations. GVS appeared ineffective, possibly due to methodological issues. The findings suggest EMS may be a promising technique for future lucid dream induction.