Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 21, 2021
Katarzyna Kamińska, Paweł Świt, Kamilla Malek
9 citations
25I-NBOMe, a synthetic hallucinogen chemically related to mescaline and sold online as a legal alternative to LSD, acts as a potent serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonist. Knowledge of its pharmacological properties remains limited, with few published in vivo and in vitro studies. A 2016 critical review reported 51 non-fatal intoxications and 21 deaths across Europe. Case reports describe toxic effects including tachycardia, hypertension, hallucinations, rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury, and death. The growing number of fatal and non-fatal intoxication cases indicates 25I-NBOMe poses a serious public health danger.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
October 2, 2020
Rachel Aakerøy, Wenche Rødseth Brede, Stian Bergseng Stølen et al.
9 citations
A young man with no prior medical issues had a seizure followed by cardiorespiratory arrest and severe neurological damage after taking a blotter containing 300 µg of LSD. A serum sample taken 3 hours later showed an LSD concentration of 4.0 ng/mL (12.4 nmol/L). No other drugs at significant levels or individual susceptibility factors were found. This suggests that LSD can cause toxic effects in otherwise healthy people.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
November 30, 2018
Jeffrey D Pope, Kay Weng Choy, Olaf H Drummer et al.
9 citations
Ayahuasca, a traditional South American drink, produces hallucinogenic effects primarily through dimethyltryptamine (DMT), but DMT is short-lived and hard to detect in urine drug tests. This study tested a simpler detection method by targeting other drink components, the β-carboline harmala alkaloids. Three commercially available harmala alkaloids were characterized and added to a non-targeted high-resolution mass spectrometry urine drug screening method. Analyzing a urine sample from a patient suspected of ayahuasca consumption detected harmaline and tetrahydroharmaline (THH). Including harmala alkaloids in drug screen libraries may enable detection of ayahuasca use in patients undergoing non-targeted drug screening.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
June 11, 2024
Gunhild Heide, Ragnhild Elén Gjulem Jamt, Jonas Fainberg-Sandbu et al.
8 citations
Cocaine use is increasing, while the trend for MDMA is less clear. Among drivers apprehended in Norway from 2000 to 2022, cocaine was detected in 2,331 cases and MDMA in 2,569 cases. In cases where only one drug was present, 54% of drivers with cocaine and 38% with MDMA were clinically impaired. Higher blood cocaine concentrations were linked to greater impairment odds, but no such relationship was found for MDMA. Many drivers using these drugs were not assessed as impaired.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 22, 2023
Delphine Joseph, Camille Lesueur, Fanny Zerizer et al.
8 citations
Twenty-six potential metabolites of the ketamine derivative 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (2F-DCK) were identified, with 15 reported for the first time. Thirteen metabolites were detected in pooled human liver microsomes, 10 were confirmed in both urine and hair from a chronic user, and all were found in at least one of those samples. Nor-2F-DCK is confirmed as a reliable target analyte; OH-dihydro-nor-2F-DCK and dehydro-nor-2F-DCK are suggested as new target analytes in urine and hair, respectively. Deschloroketamine (DCK) was identified as a 2F-DCK metabolite for the first time, with concentrations in hair segments A (0–3 cm), B (3–6 cm), and C (6–9 cm) of 885, 1,500, and 1,850 pg/mg, respectively. Two seized crystals contained 2F-DCK at 67% and 96% with traces of DCK (0.4% and 0.6%) from cross-contamination.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
September 15, 2023
Cristina Calvetti, Alberto Salomone, Andrea Verzeletti et al.
7 citations
An analysis of 847 hair samples from Italian adults aged 18–40, collected during 2020–2021 for driving relicensing or drug withdrawal monitoring, found that 8.4% tested positive for new psychoactive substances (NPS). Ketamine and its metabolite norketamine were the most common, appearing in 56 and 35 samples respectively. Fentanyl, norfentanyl, 4-ANPP, MDMB-4en-PINACA, N,N-DMT, 5-chloro AB-PINACA, α-PHP, and methcathinone were detected in fewer than six samples each. The low detection rate contrasts with the perceived widespread availability of NPS in Italy but aligns with similar hair analysis studies. The authors plan to expand the study population to include a broader age range and more diverse origins.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 27, 2025
Melissa F. Fogarty, Sara E Walton, Michael T Truver et al.
6 citations
N,N-dimethylpentylone (DMP), a synthetic cathinone found in counterfeit 'Ecstasy' and 'Molly' tablets, is a psychomotor stimulant that can cause adverse clinical outcomes including death. A new assay using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry measured DMP and five related compounds in 125 forensic cases. In postmortem blood, DMP concentrations ranged from 3.3 to 4600 ng/mL (mean 320 ng/mL, median 150 ng/mL). Its primary metabolite, pentylone, was present in 98% of cases. DMP potently inhibited the dopamine transporter (IC50 of 49 nM) but was 100-fold weaker at the serotonin transporter. In mice, DMP was a locomotor stimulant (ED50 of 3.5 mg/kg). After DMP's scheduling in 2024, an unregulated replacement may emerge.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
June 11, 2024
Salomé Riess, Marjorie Chèze, Aurelie Muckensturm et al.
5 citations
2-Fluorodeschloroketamine (2-FDCK), a new psychoactive substance similar to ketamine, was detected and quantified in three forensic cases: one of self-mutilation and two deaths. In peripheral blood, concentrations ranged from 457 to 5885 µg/L across the cases, and the main metabolites nor-2-FDCK, dihydro-nor-2-FDCK, and dihydro-2-FDCK were also found. Hair analysis in the two fatal cases showed 2-FDCK at approximately 4149 and 79824 pg/mg. Deschloroketamine (DCK) was present in all biological fluids and hair, but in one case it appeared to result from 2-FDCK metabolism rather than separate ingestion, suggesting the first report of DCK as a metabolite of 2-FDCK in both fluids and hair.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
January 31, 2024
Miroslava Bursová, Tomáš Hložek, Miloš Sokol et al.
5 citations
A 42-year-old man who used drugs died at home and his body was found two months later. Autopsy did not reveal an obvious cause of death, but toxicology screening using liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry detected methoxetamine (MXE), a ketamine analog, and several of its metabolites in blood, urine, and gastric contents. MXE concentrations were 3.6 ng/mL in blood, 70.5 ng/mL in urine, and 18.0 ng/mL in gastric content. No other drugs or poisons were found, so despite the low blood level, MXE likely contributed to the death. The case shows that MXE and its metabolites can be detected in a decomposing body even after two months.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 1, 2024
Madeleine E Wood, Glenna J Brown, Erin L Karschner et al.
4 citations
A new high-throughput urine screening and confirmation method detects psilocin, mitragynine, phencyclidine, ketamine, norketamine, and dehydronorketamine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Automated liquid handling with dispersive pipette extraction tips prepares screening samples, while offline solid-phase extraction handles confirmation samples. The method achieves limits of detection between 1-5 ng/mL for screening and 1 ng/mL for confirmation, using smaller specimen volumes than previous methods. Validation followed ANSI/ASB Standard 036 for forensic toxicology. Automation improves throughput and quality assurance, making the method suitable for workplace drug testing, human performance, and postmortem laboratories needing robust analysis of these traditionally challenging analytes.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
May 20, 2024
Linhao Xu, Hui Yan, Yiling Tang et al.
3 citations
Since the 2000s, more new psychoactive substances have appeared on the illicit drug market. β-Keto-arylcyclohexylamine compounds, which have pharmacological roles in anesthesia, are increasingly used recreationally, but detailed toxicity data are lacking. Analyzing their metabolites can help forensic personnel determine whether someone has taken these illicit substances. This study examined the in vitro and in vivo metabolism of three such compounds: deschloro-N-ethyl-ketamine, fluoro-N-ethyl-ketamine, and bromoketamine. Using zebrafish and human liver microsomes, 49 metabolites were identified via liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Hydroxy-deschloro-N-ethyl-ketamine, hydroxy-fluoro-N-ethyl-ketamine, and hydroxy-bromoketamine are recommended as biomarkers for documenting intake in clinical and forensic cases.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
August 29, 2023
Marilia Santoro Cardoso, Kelly Francisco da Cunha, Izabelly Geraldes Silva et al.
3 citations
Psilocin, the active compound produced when psilocybin from magic mushrooms is ingested, is unstable and oxidizes quickly, making its detection in biological samples challenging. A new method using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry was developed and validated to measure psilocin in oral fluid. The method requires only 100 microliters of sample, achieves detection limits of 0.05 ng/mL, and performs reliably with low bias and imprecision. Psilocin was stable in oral fluid at −20°C for 24 hours, at 4°C for 72 hours, and at 24°C for 24 hours, but degraded after three freeze-thaw cycles. Analysis of five authentic samples from party attendees found psilocin concentrations between 0.08 and 36.4 ng/mL, marking the first report of such measurements in oral fluid.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
August 13, 2022
Laurène Dufayet, Jérôme Langrand, Jean-Claude Alvarez et al.
3 citations
A 46-year-old man experienced a brief loss of consciousness and visual hallucinations after taking three tablets of the hallucinogenic tryptamine derivative 5-MeO-DALT, purchased online. Laboratory analysis quantified 32.5 mg of the drug per tablet (11% purity) and 7 ng/mL in the patient's plasma 8 hours after consumption. Poisonings from 5-MeO-DALT are rarely reported, but the broad availability of such products means emergency physicians and clinical toxicologists should consider recreational tryptamine ingestion, especially because most routine toxicological screenings do not detect them.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
May 26, 2025
Malik Schoffner, Vamshikrishna Reddy Sammeta, Marilyn Naeem et al.
2 citations
A liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method was developed and validated to detect and quantify six 4-position ring-substituted tryptamines in plasma, including psilocybin, psilacetin, 4-Pro-DMT, and their metabolites psilocin and 4-HO-DPT. The method showed linearity from 0.5 to 100 ng/mL for most analytes (psilocybin from 5 to 100 ng/mL), with acceptable bias and imprecision. Matrix effects were minimal except for ion enhancement of psilocin and psilocybin. Extraction efficiency was about 50%. Applied to plasma from male rats given psilacetin, psilacetin was not detected, and psilocin concentrations ranged up to 32.7 ng/mL. The method provides a robust tool for future research and clinical applications.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
May 16, 2025
Hsueh-Hui Yang, Chia-Sui Kao, Ahai C Lua et al.
2 citations
A green method using liquid-liquid microextraction with 1-undecanol and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detected ketamine and its metabolites in human urine without derivatization. Detection limits were 1.0 ng/mL for ketamine, 1.5 ng/mL for norketamine, and 1.7 ng/mL for dehydronorketamine. Analysis of eight real urine samples from drug abusers showed acceptable accuracy and precision. The findings suggest that detecting dehydronorketamine may be more suitable than detecting norketamine or ketamine for judging ketamine abuse. The method is simple, fast, and uses little solvent, addressing the need for green analytical techniques in toxicology.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
June 11, 2024
Xue Qin Ng, Evelyn Mei Ling Goh, Asimah Hamzah et al.
2 citations
Detecting LSD use through urinalysis is difficult because LSD is rapidly metabolized and rarely appears in urine. Instead, its primary metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD is usually detected. In this study, iso-LSD, a contaminant from illicit LSD preparation, was found alongside 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD in many urine samples, often at higher abundance. Metabolism experiments with human liver microsomes showed that iso-LSD breaks down more slowly than LSD, and analysis of 24 authentic urine samples detected iso-LSD in 18 of them, sometimes with traces of a possible metabolite. The slower metabolism and high detection rate suggest iso-LSD is a viable urinary biomarker for confirming LSD consumption, especially when LSD or 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD are absent.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
May 19, 2023
Xuan Luo, Di Zhang, Fang Zhang et al.
2 citations
Using mass spectrometry and theoretical calculations, 17 oxidative metabolites of the drug 2-fluorodeschloroketamine (2-FDCK) were identified in human urine and grouped into four categories. The study clarified how the site of oxidative metabolism relates to the electron cloud density in the molecule. Two mirror-image forms of a related compound, dihydro-2-FDCK, were distinguished using a lab-made reference standard and computational predictions. The work also revealed which enzymes favor particular molecular shapes during hydrogenation in the body. These findings provide a foundation for identifying metabolites of similar ketamine-type drugs.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 9, 2025
Jade Pullen, Robert Moore, Rebecca Wood et al.
1 citation
Two deaths in the UK following DMT use occurred in the context of polydrug use, with both cases involving additional compounds that can increase serotonergic drive, potentially causing serotonin syndrome. DMT was detected in femoral blood at 0.23 mg/l and 0.24 mg/l. One case involved cocaine and amphetamine; the other involved venlafaxine and mirtazapine. A literature search found three previous fatalities after DMT use, all accidental, two during ayahuasca ceremonies. Polydrug use is increasingly common, and users of unregulated drugs should exercise caution when combining them with other unregulated drugs or prescribed medications.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 22, 2023
Alice Ameline, Morgane Baudry, Delphine Garnier et al.
1 citation
A 38-year-old man with a history of drug addiction was found dead at home with two bags of powder. Toxicological analysis of his blood detected 3-hydroxyphencyclidine (3-OH-PCP) at 524 ng/mL, the highest concentration ever reported in the literature. Other drugs found in his blood included nordiazepam, methylphenidate, amisulpride, methadone, and benzoylecgonine at levels typical of recreational abuse. Hair testing showed 3-OH-PCP at 174 pg/mg, suggesting chronic use. Analysis of the powders identified 3-OH-PCP and 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine with purities of 85.4% and 91.3%, respectively. 3-OH-PCP is a derivative of phencyclidine that acts on the NMDA receptor with higher affinity than phencyclidine.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
June 4, 2026
David A Barajas, Heather C Noda Carter, Michael R Tomedi et al.
Psilocin, the active metabolite of psilocybin, binds to serotonin receptors and induces hallucinogenic effects. In urine, most psilocin is excreted as psilocin-O-glucuronide, which must be converted back to free psilocin for testing. This conversion is challenging due to psilocin's chemical instability. The study compared enzymatic hydrolysis using one conventional β-glucuronidase from E. coli and three recombinant enzymes (IMCSZyme, Kura Biotech-BGTurbo, and Kura Biotech-B-One) on human urine samples. Recombinant enzymes performed far better than the conventional one. Kura Biotech-BGTurbo hydrolyzed fastest at 25-50°C, while IMCSZyme worked consistently across 25-80°C. The results offer practical guidelines for forensic labs to improve psilocin testing.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
March 15, 2026
Aurora Balloni, Sarah M.r. Wille, Giorgia Sprega et al.
MDMA (Ecstasy) is broken down and cleared from the body at different rates for its two mirror-image forms. In oral fluid from 161 samples, the S-(+)-enantiomer of MDMA was eliminated faster (half-life 3.3 hours) than the R-(-)-enantiomer (half-life 4.8 hours). Both reached peak levels within 1.75 hours after taking the drug. For the metabolite MDA, the second enantiomer cleared more quickly (half-life 9.6 hours) than the first (23.8 hours). The ratio of R to S MDMA increased over time, which could help estimate when the drug was taken. In roadside checks, 54.5% of cases had an R/S ratio above 1.5, suggesting use within the prior 24 hours.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
February 19, 2026
Marianne Skov-Skov Bergh, Inger Lise Bogen, Merete Vevelstad et al.
A new LC-MS/MS method simultaneously quantifies psilocin, bufotenin, and their metabolites in human whole blood, using protein precipitation and lipid removal filtration. Psilocin degrades rapidly—46-66% at room temperature and 66-76% at 4 °C after one day, reaching 88-100% loss by three days; at -20 °C, up to 51% is lost after one month and ≥91% after three months. In contrast, psilocin glucuronide (PSG) remains stable for 14 days at room temperature and 4 °C, and for at least one year at -20 °C, making it a reliable biomarker of psilocybin intake. Bufotenin shows moderate stability, while 5-HIAA is unsuitable due to endogenous presence. Analysis of 23 forensic blood samples confirmed PSG in nearly all cases, even when psilocin was below the limit of quantification.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
September 1, 2014
John L Krstenansky, Miguel Muzzio
Smoking dried Salvia divinorum leaf delivers only about 5% of the salvinorin A present in the plant material. An 830 mg cigarette containing roughly 2.7 mg of salvinorin A delivered on average 133 μg of the compound in the smoke. Hydrolysis converts some salvinorin A to inactive salvinorin B during smoking, with more salvinorin B (217 μg) than salvinorin A (133 μg) delivered per cigarette. Because smoking produces hallucinogenic effects and salvinorin A is the presumed active ingredient, the estimated effective inhaled dose is less than 133 μg per person. Rapid metabolism in the body means the dose reaching the brain is substantially lower.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
July 1, 2006
J. H. Sklerov, Barry Levine, Karla A. Moore et al.
The authors argue that a previously published case report on the ingestion of 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) lacks sufficient clarity regarding the chemical analysis and interpretation of results. They highlight the need for rigorous biochemical and analytical methods in forensic and clinical case reports involving psychedelic substances, emphasizing that ambiguous or incomplete data can lead to misinterpretation of the drug's effects on behavior and neurotransmitter systems. The paper calls for standardized reporting practices to ensure accurate understanding of such ingestions in medical and legal contexts.
Journal of Analytical Toxicology
April 30, 2026
Alexandria S. Senetra, Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay, Yi-Hua Chiang et al.
Delta-8-THC, a cannabinoid growing in popularity for its reported therapeutic effects, was studied in male rats to understand its pharmacokinetics. After a single oral dose of 7.5 mg/kg, the compound showed very low oral bioavailability of 3.0%, with a peak plasma concentration of 13.4 ng/mL reached in 0.5 hours. Intravenous dosing at 1.25 mg/kg revealed a clearance rate higher than rat liver blood flow, suggesting elimination occurs partly outside the liver, and a large volume of distribution, indicating extensive movement into tissues. The elimination half-life was 13.9 hours. These findings suggest that oral Delta-8-THC is poorly absorbed, while its distribution and clearance patterns resemble those of other cannabinoids.