June 26, 2026
Spencer W. Wheeler, Jonathan Dinsmore, Natalie L. Dyer
preprint
Salvia divinorum is a unique psychedelic whose active compound, salvinorin A, acts on kappa opioid receptors. In an online survey of 321 participants about their most recent salvia experience, the average number of items endorsed on the Salvia Experience Checklist (SEC) was 16.5 out of 58, and the average Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS) score was 186.36. Scores on all HRS subscales correlated significantly with SEC scores. Exploratory factor analysis of the SEC yielded 10 factors, and content analysis identified 16 major themes. Higher SEC scores were associated with stronger extract potency and with smoking as the administration method. The findings help characterize salvia's phenomenology and support further development of the SEC.
SSP Modern Pharmacy and Medicine
May 25, 2026
Nadiia Kutsenko
Salvia divinorum and its active compound Salvinorin A pose high toxicological risk, rapid psychotropic action, and legal control difficulties. Their availability online and in informal markets, combined with a perception as natural products, challenges public health, forensic practice, and regulators. The rapid onset of effects, unpredictable behavioral reactions, and difficulty detecting use via routine toxicology increase their relevance for medico-pharmaceutical law and forensic pharmacy. Italy's experience and the new EUDA mandate show that effective counteraction requires legislative control, forensic pharmaceuticals, digital market monitoring, prevention, early-warning systems, public education, and health system preparedness. Cross-border distribution, internet promotion, and misleading marketing as harmless herbal products need attention. An integrated approach can reduce misuse, improve detection, and strengthen cooperation among healthcare, law enforcement, forensic experts, and regulators.
Biomedicines
February 21, 2026
Maximiliano Ganado, Carmen Rubio, Javier Pérez-villavicencio et al.
Psychedelic effects are not solely driven by serotonin receptors. The compound salvinorin A, from Salvia divinorum, produces altered consciousness by directly activating kappa opioid receptors (KORs), bypassing serotonin entirely. This review synthesizes evidence from lab studies, animal models, and human brain imaging. Salvinorin A triggers a specific signaling pathway (β-arrestin bias) that causes rapid receptor desensitization, disrupts thalamocortical communication, suppresses dopamine activity in reward circuits, and fragments large-scale brain networks. Despite being a potent opioid agonist, it has low abuse potential because its aversive effects and dopamine suppression prevent positive reinforcement. Understanding opioid receptor mechanisms expands psychedelic neuroscience beyond serotonin-focused models and may guide development of treatments for depression, addiction, and chronic pain.
Translational Psychiatry
October 10, 2025
Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al.
3 citations
Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound in Salvia divinorum, shows therapeutic potential for pain, addiction, and stroke in animal models, but its side effects—including anxiety, motor and cognitive impairment—may limit clinical use. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 82 studies found anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects, though depression results were inconsistent. Doses ranged from 0.1 to 10 mg/kg, with rapid onset and a half-life of about one hour. Sixteen structurally distinct analogues were identified with potentially improved safety and pharmacokinetic profiles. Findings support further development of analogues to overcome the side effect profile.
Universität Zürich, ZORA
October 10, 2025
Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al.
Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound in Salvia divinorum and a potent kappa opioid receptor agonist, has been tested in animal models of pain, stroke, addiction, and depression. It shows anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects. However, findings on depression are inconsistent, with both antidepressant and depressogenic outcomes reported. Toxicity data indicate anxiogenic effects and motor and cognitive impairment, with minimal impact on vital parameters. Pharmacokinetic data show rapid onset, fast peak, and a half-life of about one hour. Sixteen structurally distinct analogues were identified with potentially improved safety and pharmacokinetic profiles.
Int J Mol Sci
June 11, 2025
4 citations
Salvia divinorum is a psychoactive plant with a complex pharmacological profile that has attracted scientific interest for both its potential therapeutic applications and associated health risks. This review analyzes the toxic and therapeutic effects of S. divinorum, evaluating its possible medical uses while highlighting consumption risks. It also examines the plant's recreational use, global consumption trends, and legal status. The article synthesizes current research to clarify the implications of S. divinorum use and inform future studies on its pharmacological potential and regulatory considerations.
January 23, 2025
Mai M. Younis, Ahmed M. Elissawy, Samir M. Osman et al.
Salvia divinorum, a hallucinogenic plant from the mint family endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico, has been traditionally used by the Mazatec people for medicinal purposes including treating arthritis, inflammation, gastrointestinal problems, and headaches, as well as in ceremonies for its psychoactive properties. Its main psychoactive component, salvinorin A, is a neoclerodane diterpene that acts as a potent and selective agonist on κ opioid receptors, causing hallucinations and loss of physical control. The chapter summarizes the plant's botany, habitat, ecology, ethnobotany, pharmacology, and medicinal effects.
Nat Chem
November 1, 2024
This work argues that Indigenous communities, particularly the Mazatec people of Oaxaca, Mexico, are the original caretakers of salvinorin A, the psychoactive compound in Salvia divinorum. It calls for recognizing their historical and ongoing contributions to the scientific understanding of this substance, challenging the erasure of Indigenous knowledge in Western scientific narratives. The text emphasizes the ethical importance of acknowledging Indigenous stewardship and intellectual contributions to research on psychoactive plants.
Indian Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology
October 30, 2024
Aravind Ajid, Boban Babu, Abhijith G Jayachandran
Salvia divinorum, a psychoactive plant that induces intense hallucinations, is increasingly abused as a recreational drug, partly due to easy online availability and limited legal restrictions in many countries. Traditionally used by the Mazatec Indians in spiritual healing, its use has also been reported in India.
BMC plant biology
October 1, 2024
Scott A. Ford, Rob W. Ness, Moonhyuk Kwon et al.
9 citations
Diviner's sage (Salvia divinorum) produces salvinorin A (SalA), a hallucinogen that activates the human κ-opioid receptor and may help treat chronic pain, addiction, and PTSD. Only two of the roughly twelve steps in SalA's biosynthesis were known. A high-quality chromosome-level genome assembly was produced, with an N50 of 41.4 Mb and 98.4% BUSCO completeness. The diploid genome is about 541 Mb. Two diterpene biosynthetic gene clusters were found, rich in new cytochrome P450s and crotonolide G synthase, which forms an early dihydrofuran ring. Other enzyme classes for later steps were scattered across the genome. Most candidate genes were not induced by methyl jasmonate. This genome enables discovery of the remaining SalA pathway steps.