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Salvia divinorum

A psychoactive mint used in Mazatec practice whose active compound, salvinorin A, is a kappa-opioid agonist rather than a serotonergic psychedelic, producing a short and markedly dissociative state.

State of the evidence

Synthesized

Synthesized from 25 studies in the library · AI-generated, grounded in the abstracts below

Found by searching the library for Salvia divinorum, salvinorin, salvinorin a, diviner's sage, ska maria pastora, ska pastora, then ranked by relevance.

Research indicates that Salvia divinorum's primary psychoactive compound, salvinorin A, acts as a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist, producing intense, short-lived dissociative and hallucinogenic effects in humans. Preclinical studies suggest potential therapeutic applications (e.g., anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, anti-addictive) but also show adverse effects like anxiogenesis and motor/cognitive impairment. Evidence is largely preclinical or from small human studies, with limited clinical trials and inconsistent findings on mood effects, highlighting the need for further research.

Evidence by study

Direction is which way each study's own result points, not our rating of the study.

What the directions mean
Supports:
the study found the intervention worked, or its hypothesis held.
Opposes:
it found the opposite, no benefit or a harm.
No effect:
no significant difference either way.
Mixed:
effects in both directions within the same study.
Unclear:
the abstract does not report a direction.
Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous kappa opioid selective agonist. 2002
Supports

Salvinorin A is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist with no activity at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor, indicating kappa opioid receptors modulate human perception.

experimental study

Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. 2012
Unclear

Reviews Salvia divinorum as a hallucinogen with unique pharmacology and therapeutic potential, but notes it has been banned in many states due to concerns about psychiatric effects.

review

Opioid receptors and legal highs:Salvia divinorumand Kratom 2008
Supports

Salvia divinorum contains the highly selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist salvinorin A, which produces visual hallucinations and synesthesia, and its use escapes traditional toxicologic monitoring.

review

Salvinorin A, an active component of the hallucinogenic sage salvia divinorum is a highly efficacious kappa-opioid receptor agonist: structural and functional considerations. 2004
Supports

Salvinorin A is a full agonist at kappa-opioid receptors, with the substituent at the 2-position critical for binding and activation.

experimental study

Effects of the plant-derived hallucinogen salvinorin A on basal dopamine levels in the caudate putamen and in a conditioned place aversion assay in mice: agonist actions at kappa opioid receptors. 2005
Supports

Higher doses of salvinorin A decreased dopamine levels in the caudate putamen, caused conditioned place aversion, and reduced locomotor activity, effects blocked by a kappa opioid antagonist.

experimental study

Divinorin A, a psychotropic terpenoid, and divinorin B from the hallucinogenic Mexican mint, Salvia divinorum 1984
Supports

Identified divinorin A as a psychotropic terpenoid and divinorin B as present in Salvia divinorum.

research article

Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora (Salvia divinorum, Epling and Játiva-M.). 1983
Supports

Salvia divinorum produces psychotropic effects comparable to other Mazatec hallucinogens and is used in traditional healing and divination practices.

ethnographic and pharmacological review

Pattern of use and subjective effects of Salvia divinorum among recreational users. 2006
Supports

Recreational users reported intense, short-lived psychedelic-like effects with marked derealization and impairment, supporting kappa-opioid receptor activation as the pharmacologic mechanism.

cross-sectional survey Sample size: 32

Salvinorin A: the "magic mint" hallucinogen finds a molecular target in the kappa opioid receptor. 2003
Supports

Salvinorin A is a selective, non-nitrogenous agonist of the kappa opioid receptor, which may serve as a molecular target for treating disorders involving altered perception.

review

Salvia divinorum and the unique diterpene hallucinogen, Salvinorin (divinorin) A. 1994
Supports

Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen and the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen isolated, effective in doses of 200 to 500 mcg when smoked.

review

Potential anxiolytic‐ and antidepressant‐like effects of salvinorin A, the main active ingredient of Salvia divinorum, in rodents 2009
Supports

Salvinorin A exhibited anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects in rodents, mediated by both kappa-opioid and endocannabinoid systems.

experimental study

Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects. 2013
Supports

Inhaled salvinorin A produced intense, dose-related dissociative effects and memory impairment that peaked at 2 minutes and rapidly dissipated, with no persisting adverse effects at 1-month follow-up.

double-blind, placebo-controlled study Sample size: 8

Human psychopharmacology and dose-effects of salvinorin A, a kappa opioid agonist hallucinogen present in the plant Salvia divinorum. 2011
Supports

Salvinorin A produced rapid, dose-related increases in mystical-type experiences and subjective effects similar to classic hallucinogens without significantly affecting heart rate or blood pressure.

double-blind, placebo controlled study Sample size: 4

Drug models of schizophrenia. 2015
Unclear

Reviews kappa opioid pharmacological drug models, including salvinorin A, as potential models for aspects of schizophrenia, but does not draw a definitive conclusion on their validity.

review

Psychopharmacology of the hallucinogenic sage Salvia divinorum. 2005
Supports

Salvinorin A is a kappa agonist both in vitro and in vivo, and the plant's unregulated status is leading to increased online marketing and predicted misuse.

review

Subjective Effects and Characteristics of Salvia Divinorum Use from a Retrospective Largescale Survey 2026
Supports

Salvia Experience Checklist scores correlated with the Hallucinogen Rating Scale and with extract potency and smoking method, supporting the SEC's validity for characterizing salvia's subjective effects.

cross-sectional survey Sample size: 321

Clinical and Pharmacological, Forensic and Pharmaceutical Profile of Hallucinogenic Sage Salvia Divinorum: Regulatory Restrictions, Internet Accessibility to Consumers, Risks to Public Health in Italy 2026
Unclear

Reviews the clinical, pharmacological, forensic, and regulatory profile of Salvia divinorum, emphasizing the need for an integrated approach to counteract misuse and public health risks.

review

Opioid Receptors in Psychedelia: Indirect Serotonergic Modulation of Direct KOR Activation by Salvinorin A 2026
Supports

Salvinorin A induces psychedelic effects through selective kappa opioid receptor agonism with β-arrestin-biased signaling, distinct from serotonergic mechanisms, and has low abuse potential.

review

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies. 2025
Mixed

Salvinorin A exhibited anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects, but also anxiogenic effects and motor and cognitive impairment, with inconsistent findings on depression.

systematic review and meta-analysis

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies 2025
Mixed

Salvinorin A exhibited anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects, but its side effect profile—including anxiogenic effects and motor and cognitive impairment—may limit clinical application.

systematic review and meta-analysis

Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Toxicology, Pharmacological Profile, and Therapeutic Potential. 2025
Unclear

Reviews the toxic and therapeutic effects of Salvia divinorum, presenting both potential therapeutic applications and health risks, warranting further research.

review

Three cytochrome P450 enzymes consecutively catalyze the biosynthesis of furanoclerodane precursors in Salvia species. 2025
Supports

Identified three cytochrome P450 enzymes in Salvia species that catalyze consecutive steps in furanoclerodane biosynthesis, supporting these as intermediate steps in salvinorin A biosynthesis.

experimental study with RNA-seq co-expression analysis and functional characterization

Diviner's Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae) 2025
Supports

Summarizes the botany, ethnobotany, and pharmacology of Salvia divinorum, highlighting salvinorin A as the most potent natural hallucinogen acting as a selective κ opioid receptor agonist.

review

The original caretakers of salvinorin A and recognizing Indigenous contributions to science. 2024
Unclear

Argues that the Indigenous caretakers of salvinorin A have been overlooked in scientific discourse and that recognizing their contributions is necessary for ethical research.

theoretical or philosophical paper

Salvia divinorum – A New Entity in the Psychedelic Scene in India 2024
Unclear

Reviews Salvia divinorum as a psychoactive plant increasingly abused as a recreational drug, facilitated by internet availability and lack of restrictions.

review

Points of agreement

  • Salvinorin A is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist.
  • Salvinorin A produces intense, short-lived dissociative and hallucinogenic effects in humans.
  • Salvia divinorum has traditional use among the Mazatec people for spiritual and medicinal purposes.
  • Salvia divinorum is increasingly available online and used recreationally, raising public health concerns.

Conflicts

  • Preclinical studies report both anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects of salvinorin A, while a systematic review notes inconsistent findings on depression with both antidepressant and depressogenic outcomes.
  • Some reviews highlight therapeutic potential, while others emphasize risks such as anxiogenic effects and motor/cognitive impairment.

Gaps

  • Limited human clinical trials; most evidence is from preclinical animal studies.
  • Durability of effects and long-term safety not well studied.
  • Inconsistent findings on mood effects (antidepressant vs. depressogenic).
  • Lack of standardized dosing and administration protocols in human studies.
  • Need for research on therapeutic applications in clinical populations.
  • Biosynthesis of salvinorin A not fully characterized.
Browse these studies in the library
How we analyze this

This synthesis reads the 15 most-cited and 10 most recent studies whose primary subject is Salvia divinorum, up to 25 in all. The most-cited set anchors the established evidence, and the recent set surfaces work that is too new to have gathered citations yet.

A study qualifies only when Salvia divinorum or a known alias appears in its title or keywords, so broad reviews that mention it only in passing are left out. Each study is read from its abstract, strongest evidence first, and the summary reports the direction of the results along with any conflicts and gaps.

Ask your own question in the Research Synthesis Tool

338 articles · 28 from the last two years · 1,134,461 participants across 73 studies reporting sample size

Common study designs

review 75 case study 12 preclinical study 12 experimental study 54 theoretical or philosophical paper 19

Research

Synthesize the evidence → Search all →

Salvinorin A in humans: A systematic review of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety

Journal of Psychopharmacology August 25, 2026 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Johann Liesner, David Brüschweiler et al.

, is a highly selective κ-opioid receptor agonist and a rare example of a κ-opioid receptor-mediated psychedelic drug. Preclinical work of salvinorin A has shown promising effects in neuropsychiatric animal models. However, human studies remain heterogeneous and fragmented, highlighting the need for synthesis. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to synthesize available human studies of...

DOI: 10.1177/02698811261473385 (opens in new tab)

Subjective Effects and Characteristics of Salvia Divinorum Use from a Retrospective Largescale Survey

June 26, 2026 Spencer W. Wheeler, Jonathan Dinsmore, Natalie L. Dyer preprint

Salvia divinorum (salvia) is a powerful, unique psychedelic, with its psychoactive compound salvinorin A acting as a kappa opioid receptor agonist. The purpose of this study was to investigate the subjective effects of salvia in a large sample and to gather early data regarding the validity of the salvia experience checklist (SEC). Four hundred participants were recruited online through forums...

DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/n9gfq_v1 (opens in new tab) Checklist Salvia officinalis Rating scale Exploratory research +2

Clinical and Pharmacological, Forensic and Pharmaceutical Profile of Hallucinogenic Sage Salvia Divinorum: Regulatory Restrictions, Internet Accessibility to Consumers, Risks to Public Health in Italy

SSP Modern Pharmacy and Medicine May 25, 2026 Nadiia Kutsenko

Salvia divinorum and Salvinorin A are an example of herbal psychoactive substances that combine high toxicological risk, rapid psychotropic action, and complexity of legal control. Their specific pharmacological profile, availability through online and informal markets, and perception as “natural” products create additional challenges for public health, forensic practice, and regulatory...

DOI: 10.53933/5gw7bp66 (opens in new tab) Cannabis Public health Mandate Relevance law +7

Opioid Receptors in Psychedelia: Indirect Serotonergic Modulation of Direct KOR Activation by Salvinorin A

Biomedicines February 21, 2026 Maximiliano Ganado, Carmen Rubio, Javier Pérez-villavicencio et al.

The neuropharmacology of psychedelics has traditionally focused on serotonergic mechanisms, particularly 5-HT2A receptor activation. However, this paradigm incompletely explains the diversity of neurobiological and therapeutic effects observed across psychedelic compounds. Non-classical psychedelics such as salvinorin A, the primary active constituent of Salvia divinorum, challenge this...

DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines14020476 (opens in new tab) Serotonergic Neuropharmacology Dopaminergic Κ-opioid receptor +8

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies.

Translational Psychiatry October 10, 2025 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al. 3 citations

Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound of Salvia divinorum, is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist. While human clinical trials remain limited, animal studies suggest potential therapeutic applications in neurological and psychiatric disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to synthesize these preclinical findings, addressing three questions: (1) What is...

DOI: 10.1038/s41398-025-03638-3 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab)

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies

Universität Zürich, ZORA October 10, 2025 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al.

Background: Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound of Salvia divinorum, is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist. While human clinical trials remain limited, animal studies suggest potential therapeutic applications in neurological and psychiatric disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to synthesize these preclinical findings, addressing three questions:...

DOI: 10.5167/uzh-282729 (opens in new tab) Pharmacology Κ-opioid receptor Antidepressant Clinical trial +7

Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Toxicology, Pharmacological Profile, and Therapeutic Potential.

Int J Mol Sci June 11, 2025 4 citations

Salvia divinorum is a psychoactive plant presenting a complex pharmacological profile, attracting significant scientific interest due to its potential therapeutic applications and associated health risks. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the toxic and therapeutic effects of S. divinorum, evaluating its potential medical applications while highlighting the risks associated with...

DOI: 10.3390/ijms26125588 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Salvinorin a Salvia divinorum Natural compound Unique compound +17

Diviner's Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae)

January 23, 2025 Mai M. Younis, Ahmed M. Elissawy, Samir M. Osman et al.

Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva, commonly named diviner’s sage, magic mint, or mystic sage, is a potent hallucinogenic plant belonging to the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico, and grown in California and other regions in the United States. It is a small to medium-sized shrub characterized by its distinctive thick quadrangular stem, elliptical large leaves, and violet...

DOI: 10.1201/9781003460336-29 (opens in new tab) Traditional medicine Sage Lamiaceae Salvia

Salvia divinorum – A New Entity in the Psychedelic Scene in India

Indian Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology October 30, 2024 Aravind Ajid, Boban Babu, Abhijith G Jayachandran

Salvia divinorum is a psychoactive plant that produces intense hallucinations and is used as a recreational drug increasingly. The Mazatec Indians used it in spiritual healing sessions. The fact that the drug is easily available through the internet and the lack of restrictions on its use in many countries have contributed to its widespread abuse. There have also been reports of drugs being...

DOI: 10.48165/iijfmt.2024.22.1.3 (opens in new tab)

Clinical trials

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