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Salvia divinorum research: what the evidence shows

A psychoactive mint used in Mazatec practice whose active compound, salvinorin A, is a kappa-opioid agonist rather than a serotonergic psychedelic, producing a short and markedly dissociative state.

State of the evidence

Synthesized

Synthesized from 25 studies in the library · AI-generated, grounded in the abstracts below

Found by searching the library for Salvia divinorum, salvinorin, salvinorin a, diviner's sage, ska maria pastora, ska pastora, then ranked by relevance.

Research on Salvia divinorum centers on salvinorin A, a potent and selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist that is chemically distinct from classical serotonergic psychedelics. Human studies show intense but very short-lived dissociative and hallucinogenic effects when inhaled, with rapid onset (seconds to minutes) and resolution within about 30 minutes, and no serious adverse events reported in controlled trials. Preclinical work suggests possible therapeutic potential (pain, inflammation, addiction, neuroprotection) but also anxiogenic and motor/cognitive side effects, and human evidence remains limited to small samples, so durability and clinical utility are unestablished.

Evidence by study

Direction is which way each study's own result points, not our rating of the study.

What the directions mean
Supports:
the study found the intervention worked, or its hypothesis held.
Opposes:
it found the opposite, no benefit or a harm.
No effect:
no significant difference either way.
Mixed:
effects in both directions within the same study.
Unclear:
the abstract does not report a direction.
Study Design Sample size Direction Finding
Salvinorin A: a potent naturally occurring nonnitrogenous kappa opioid selective agonist. 2002 experimental study Supports Salvinorin A potently and selectively inhibited binding to cloned kappa opioid receptors and acted as a kappa agonist, with no activity at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor.
Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, Salvia divinorum, methoxetamine, and piperazines. 2012 review Mixed Salvia divinorum is described as a hallucinogen with unique pharmacology and therapeutic potential, but banned in many states due to concerns about psychiatric effects.
Opioid receptors and legal highs:Salvia divinorumand Kratom 2008 review Supports Salvinorin A is a highly selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist that produces visual hallucinations and synesthesia, and Salvia divinorum use escapes traditional toxicologic monitoring.
Salvinorin A, an active component of the hallucinogenic sage salvia divinorum is a highly efficacious kappa-opioid receptor agonist: structural and functional considerations. 2004 experimental study Supports Salvinorin A was a potent and efficacious full agonist at kappa-opioid receptors, with the 2-position substituent critical for binding and activation.
Effects of the plant-derived hallucinogen salvinorin A on basal dopamine levels in the caudate putamen and in a conditioned place aversion assay in mice: agonist actions at kappa opioid receptors. 2005 experimental study Mixed Higher doses of salvinorin A decreased dopamine in the caudate putamen, caused conditioned place aversion, and reduced locomotor activity, effects blocked by a kappa antagonist.
Divinorin A, a psychotropic terpenoid, and divinorin B from the hallucinogenic Mexican mint, Salvia divinorum 1984 research article Supports Divinorin A (salvinorin A) is a psychotropic terpenoid present in Salvia divinorum, along with divinorin B.
Ethnopharmacology of ska María Pastora (Salvia divinorum, Epling and Játiva-M.). 1983 ethnographic and pharmacological review Supports Salvia divinorum produces psychotropic effects comparable to other Mazatec hallucinogens and is used in traditional healing and divination.
Pattern of use and subjective effects of Salvia divinorum among recreational users. 2006 cross-sectional survey 32 Supports Salvia produced intense, short-lived psychedelic-like effects with marked derealization and impairment, supporting kappa-opioid receptor activation as the mechanism.
Salvinorin A: the "magic mint" hallucinogen finds a molecular target in the kappa opioid receptor. 2003 review Supports Salvinorin A is a selective non-nitrogenous kappa opioid receptor agonist and the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen known, with the receptor as a potential drug target for perception disorders.
Salvia divinorum and the unique diterpene hallucinogen, Salvinorin (divinorin) A. 1994 review Supports Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen and the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen isolated, effective at 200-500 mcg when smoked and essentially inactive orally.
Potential anxiolytic‐ and antidepressant‐like effects of salvinorin A, the main active ingredient of Salvia divinorum, in rodents 2009 experimental study Supports Salvinorin A exhibited anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects in rodents that were prevented by kappa-opioid or CB1 cannabinoid receptor antagonists.
Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects. 2013 double-blind, placebo-controlled study 8 Mixed Inhaled salvinorin A produced intense dose-related dissociative effects and memory impairment peaking at 2 minutes and dissipating rapidly, with no persisting adverse effects at 1-month follow-up.
Human psychopharmacology and dose-effects of salvinorin A, a kappa opioid agonist hallucinogen present in the plant Salvia divinorum. 2011 double-blind, placebo controlled study 4 Supports Salvinorin A produced rapid dose-related increases in mystical-type experiences and subjective effects similar to classic hallucinogens without significantly affecting heart rate or blood pressure.
Drug models of schizophrenia. 2015 review Unclear Kappa opioid pharmacological models are among several neurotransmitter-based drug models evaluated for their similarity to schizophrenia.
Psychopharmacology of the hallucinogenic sage Salvia divinorum. 2005 review Mixed Salvinorin A is a kappa agonist in vitro and in vivo, and the plant's unregulated status is leading to increased online marketing and predicted misuse.
Salvinorin A in humans: A systematic review of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety 2026 systematic review 174 Mixed Salvinorin A showed rapid onset and short duration when inhaled, no serious adverse events, rare long-term adverse effects, and low abuse potential, alongside acute disorientation, anxiety, and distress in subsets of participants.
Subjective Effects and Characteristics of Salvia Divinorum Use from a Retrospective Largescale Survey 2026 cross-sectional survey 321 Supports Salvia Experience Checklist scores correlated with Hallucinogen Rating Scale scores and with extract potency and smoking method, supporting the checklist's validity for characterizing subjective effects.
Comparative genome analysis provides a foundation for defining salvinorin A biosynthesis in Salvia divinorum 2026 genomic and comparative genomic analysis Supports The authors report that sequencing the S. divinorum genome and comparing it with related species establishes a genetic basis for cytochrome P450 and methyl-transferase activities in salvinorin A biosynthesis.
Opioid Receptors in Psychedelia: Indirect Serotonergic Modulation of Direct KOR Activation by Salvinorin A 2026 review Supports Salvinorin A induces psychedelic effects through selective kappa opioid receptor agonism with beta-arrestin-biased signaling, distinct from serotonergic mechanisms, and has low abuse potential.
The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies. 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis Mixed Salvinorin A showed anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects in animal models, but also anxiogenic effects and motor and cognitive impairment, with inconsistent findings on depression.
The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis Mixed Salvinorin A exhibited anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-addictive effects in animal models, but its side effect profile including anxiogenic effects and motor and cognitive impairment may limit clinical application.
Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Toxicology, Pharmacological Profile, and Therapeutic Potential. 2025 review Mixed Salvia divinorum presents both potential therapeutic applications and health risks, with its complex pharmacological profile warranting further research.
Three cytochrome P450 enzymes consecutively catalyze the biosynthesis of furanoclerodane precursors in Salvia species. 2025 experimental study with RNA-seq co-expression analysis and functional characterization Supports Three cytochrome P450 enzymes in Salvia splendens catalyze consecutive steps in salviarin biosynthesis, and orthologous genes in Salvia divinorum support these as intermediate steps in salvinorin A biosynthesis.
Diviner's Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae) 2025 review Supports Salvinorin A is the most potent natural hallucinogen and acts as a strong and selective agonist at kappa opioid receptors, producing laughter, loss of motor control, and colorful dream-like hallucinations.
Salvia divinorum – A New Entity in the Psychedelic Scene in India 2024 review Opposes Salvia divinorum is increasingly abused as a recreational drug, facilitated by internet availability and lack of restrictions in many countries.

Points of agreement

  • Salvinorin A is the main psychoactive constituent of Salvia divinorum and acts as a potent, selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist.
  • Its pharmacology is distinct from classical serotonergic psychedelics, with no significant 5-HT2A activity.
  • Inhaled salvinorin A produces rapid-onset, intense but short-lived dissociative and hallucinogenic effects.
  • Human controlled studies report no serious adverse events and low apparent abuse potential.
  • Preclinical work suggests possible therapeutic potential in pain, inflammation, addiction, and neuroprotection.

Conflicts

  • Preclinical findings on depression are inconsistent, with both antidepressant-like and depressogenic outcomes reported.
  • Some reviews emphasize therapeutic potential while others emphasize psychiatric risks and abuse liability.
  • Rodent studies show anxiolytic-like effects, whereas preclinical toxicity data also report anxiogenic effects.

Gaps

  • Human evidence is limited to very small samples and hallucinogen-experienced volunteers.
  • Long-term safety and durability of effects are largely unstudied beyond short follow-up.
  • Clinical trials in patient populations are lacking.
  • Optimal dosing, routes of administration, and comparisons with standard treatments are not established.
  • Blinding integrity and expectancy effects in human studies are not well characterized.
Browse these studies in the library

Common questions

What does the research agree on about salvia divinorum?
  • Salvinorin A is the main psychoactive constituent of Salvia divinorum and acts as a potent, selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist.
  • Its pharmacology is distinct from classical serotonergic psychedelics, with no significant 5-HT2A activity.
  • Inhaled salvinorin A produces rapid-onset, intense but short-lived dissociative and hallucinogenic effects.
  • Human controlled studies report no serious adverse events and low apparent abuse potential.
  • Preclinical work suggests possible therapeutic potential in pain, inflammation, addiction, and neuroprotection.
Where do studies on salvia divinorum conflict?
  • Preclinical findings on depression are inconsistent, with both antidepressant-like and depressogenic outcomes reported.
  • Some reviews emphasize therapeutic potential while others emphasize psychiatric risks and abuse liability.
  • Rodent studies show anxiolytic-like effects, whereas preclinical toxicity data also report anxiogenic effects.
What is still unknown about salvia divinorum?
  • Human evidence is limited to very small samples and hallucinogen-experienced volunteers.
  • Long-term safety and durability of effects are largely unstudied beyond short follow-up.
  • Clinical trials in patient populations are lacking.
  • Optimal dosing, routes of administration, and comparisons with standard treatments are not established.
  • Blinding integrity and expectancy effects in human studies are not well characterized.
How we analyze this

This synthesis reads the 15 most-cited and 10 most recent studies whose primary subject is Salvia divinorum, up to 25 in all. The most-cited set anchors the established evidence, and the recent set surfaces work that is too new to have gathered citations yet.

A study qualifies only when Salvia divinorum or a known alias appears in its title or keywords, so broad reviews that mention it only in passing are left out. Each study is read from its abstract, strongest evidence first, and the summary reports the direction of the results along with any conflicts and gaps.

The full method, including what a person does and does not review, is on the methods page.

Ask your own question in the Research Synthesis Tool

407 articles · 30 from the last two years · 1,134,448 participants across 71 studies reporting sample size

Common study designs

review 79 case study 12 preclinical study 13 experimental study 53 theoretical or philosophical paper 44

Research volume by year

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279 studies whose primary subject is salvia divinorum since 2002

Studies about salvia divinorum per year, 2002 to 2026, peaking at 25 in 2008 Bar chart: one bar per year, taller where more studies were published that year. 0 15 30 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
2026 is partial
Show the numbers
Studies about salvia divinorum per year, 2002 to 2026, peaking at 25 in 2008
Year Studies
2002 2
2003 3
2004 5
2005 13
2006 20
2007 15
2008 25
2009 23
2010 16
2011 23
2012 11
2013 11
2014 13
2015 12
2016 13
2017 10
2018 7
2019 8
2020 9
2021 4
2022 8
2023 10
2024 8
2025 5
2026 5

Research

Synthesize the evidence → Search all →

Title: DMT, Salvinorin A, and Stress Regulation: An Exploratory Neuropharmacological Research Proposal

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) October 21, 2026 Peter McGrath preprint

Title: DMT, Salvinorin A, and Stress Regulation: An Exploratory Neuropharmacological Research Proposal Creator: Peter McGrath Affiliation: Appalachian State University Resource type: Publication — Working Paper Description: This independent undergraduate research proposal examines differences between the serotonergic mechanisms of N,N-DMT and the kappa-opioid receptor activity of salvinorin A,...

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.23540286 (opens in new tab)

Salvinorin A in humans: A systematic review of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and safety

Journal of Psychopharmacology August 25, 2026 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Johann Liesner, David Brüschweiler et al.

, is a highly selective κ-opioid receptor agonist and a rare example of a κ-opioid receptor-mediated psychedelic drug. Preclinical work of salvinorin A has shown promising effects in neuropsychiatric animal models. However, human studies remain heterogeneous and fragmented, highlighting the need for synthesis. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to synthesize available human studies of...

DOI: 10.1177/02698811261473385 (opens in new tab)

Subjective Effects and Characteristics of Salvia Divinorum Use from a Retrospective Largescale Survey

June 26, 2026 Spencer W. Wheeler, Jonathan Dinsmore, Natalie L. Dyer preprint

Salvia divinorum (salvia) is a powerful, unique psychedelic, with its psychoactive compound salvinorin A acting as a kappa opioid receptor agonist. The purpose of this study was to investigate the subjective effects of salvia in a large sample and to gather early data regarding the validity of the salvia experience checklist (SEC). Four hundred participants were recruited online through forums...

DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/n9gfq_v1 (opens in new tab) Checklist Salvia officinalis Rating scale Exploratory research +2

Comparative genome analysis provides a foundation for defining salvinorin A biosynthesis in Salvia divinorum

Nature Communications March 23, 2026 Haixiu Li, Yuwei Sun, Wenliang Xu et al. 1 citation

The synthesis of salvinorin A by Salvia divinorum is of considerable interest for developing pain relief, anti-opioid addiction and antidepressant medications, but progress has been compromised by limited access to plant material and the complexity of the biosynthetic pathway. Initially using S. splendens, a closely related species, the first steps in the biosynthetic pathway have been...

DOI: 10.1038/s41467-026-70885-3 (opens in new tab)

Opioid Receptors in Psychedelia: Indirect Serotonergic Modulation of Direct KOR Activation by Salvinorin A

Biomedicines February 21, 2026 Maximiliano Ganado, Carmen Rubio, Javier Pérez-villavicencio et al.

The neuropharmacology of psychedelics has traditionally focused on serotonergic mechanisms, particularly 5-HT2A receptor activation. However, this paradigm incompletely explains the diversity of neurobiological and therapeutic effects observed across psychedelic compounds. Non-classical psychedelics such as salvinorin A, the primary active constituent of Salvia divinorum, challenge this...

DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines14020476 (opens in new tab) Serotonergic Neuropharmacology Dopaminergic Κ-opioid receptor +8

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies.

Translational Psychiatry October 10, 2025 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al. 3 citations

Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound of Salvia divinorum, is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist. While human clinical trials remain limited, animal studies suggest potential therapeutic applications in neurological and psychiatric disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to synthesize these preclinical findings, addressing three questions: (1) What is...

DOI: 10.1038/s41398-025-03638-3 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab)

The translational potential of salvinorin A: systematic review and meta-analysis of preclinical studies

Universität Zürich, ZORA October 10, 2025 Wolfgang Emanuel Zürrer, Lionel Wettstein, Helena Aicher et al.

Background: Salvinorin A, the main psychoactive compound of Salvia divinorum, is a potent and selective kappa opioid receptor agonist. While human clinical trials remain limited, animal studies suggest potential therapeutic applications in neurological and psychiatric disorders. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to synthesize these preclinical findings, addressing three questions:...

DOI: 10.5167/uzh-282729 (opens in new tab) Pharmacology Κ-opioid receptor Antidepressant Clinical trial +7

Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Toxicology, Pharmacological Profile, and Therapeutic Potential.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences June 11, 2025 Sara Calado, Bruno Pires, Luana M. Rosendo et al. 4 citations

Salvia divinorum is a psychoactive plant presenting a complex pharmacological profile, attracting significant scientific interest due to its potential therapeutic applications and associated health risks. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the toxic and therapeutic effects of S. divinorum, evaluating its potential medical applications while highlighting the risks associated with...

DOI: 10.3390/ijms26125588 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Salvinorin a Salvia divinorum Natural compound Unique compound +17

Diviner's Sage (Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva Lamiaceae)

January 23, 2025 Mai M. Younis, Ahmed M. Elissawy, Samir M. Osman et al.

Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva, commonly named diviner’s sage, magic mint, or mystic sage, is a potent hallucinogenic plant belonging to the mint family (Lamiaceae). It is endemic to Oaxaca, Mexico, and grown in California and other regions in the United States. It is a small to medium-sized shrub characterized by its distinctive thick quadrangular stem, elliptical large leaves, and violet...

DOI: 10.1201/9781003460336-29 (opens in new tab) Traditional medicine Sage Lamiaceae Salvia

Emerging Psychotropic Drug for the Treatment of Trigeminal Pain: Salvinorin A

Pharmaceuticals December 27, 2024 Geovanna Nallely Quiñonez-Bastidas, Lucia Elhy Grijalva-Contreras, Selene Isabel Patiño-Camacho et al.

Trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is chronic pain caused by damage to the somatosensorial system on the trigeminal nerve or its branches, which involves peripheral and central dysfunction pain pathways. Trigeminal pain triggers disruptive pain in regions of the face, including within and around the mouth. Besides clinical experiences, translating the language of suffering into scientific terminology...

DOI: 10.3390/ph17121619 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Salvinorin a Trigeminal neuralgia Κ-opioid receptor agonist <i>salvia divinorum</i>

Clinical trials

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