Journal of Psychopharmacology
May 20, 2006
Marc Wittmann, Olivia Carter, Felix Hasler et al.
245 citations
Psilocybin impairs the ability to reproduce time intervals longer than 2.5 seconds, to synchronize movements to beats longer than 2 seconds, and slows preferred tapping rate. These objective timing deficits are accompanied by working-memory impairments and subjective changes including depersonalization and derealization. The findings indicate the serotonin system is selectively involved in processing durations longer than 2–3 seconds and in voluntary movement speed control. The disruption of longer intervals likely results from interactions with cognitive dimensions of temporal processing via 5-HT2A receptor stimulation.
Neuroscience Letters
February 13, 2008
Jiřı́ Wackermann, Marc Wittmann, Felix Hasler et al.
95 citations
Psilocybin, a hallucinogenic substance, alters the internal representation of time by increasing the loss rate of the internal duration representation. In two double-blind, placebo-controlled experiments—one with 12 subjects receiving graded doses and another with 9 subjects receiving a very low dose—participants repeatedly reproduced time intervals between 1.5 and 5 seconds. The parameter kappa from the 'dual klepsydra' model was used to assess effects. At 90 minutes after intake, psilocybin significantly increased kappa, indicating a higher loss rate of internal time representation. These findings may relate to qualitative changes in subjective time during altered states of consciousness.
Frontiers in Psychology
January 1, 2014
Brice Martin, Marc Wittmann, Nicolas Franck et al.
87 citations
Disturbances of the minimal self—the immediate sense of being a subject of experience—may be a core feature of schizophrenia, manifesting as an altered sense of presence or difficulty distinguishing self from non-self. These disturbances are not correlated with common cognitive impairments like working-memory or attention disorders. This paper reviews literature suggesting a link between such self-disturbances and alterations in time processing, including both implicit temporal integration windows and explicit duration perception. The authors argue that understanding the relationship between time and the minimal self, along with embodiment issues, requires further research focused on implicit time processing.
Frontiers in Psychology
February 18, 2020
Ulf Winter, Pierre Levan, Tilmann Lhündrup Borghardt et al.
68 citations
A highly experienced meditator with over 50,000 hours of practice reported experiencing content-free awareness (CFA) during an EEG-fMRI session. During CFA, alpha brainwave power sharply decreased while theta power increased. Functional connectivity increased in the dorsal attention network (DAN) and decreased in the posterior default mode network (DMN). These patterns suggest a top-down attentional state that excludes both external sensory stimuli and internal thoughts from conscious experience. The authors conclude that investigating such states may offer new approaches for identifying the minimal neural correlate of consciousness.
Consciousness and Cognition
May 1, 2014
Han-Gue Jo, Marc Wittmann, Tilmann Lhündrup Borghardt et al.
43 citations
A neurophenomenological study with a single expert meditator shows that a larger readiness potential (RP) is linked to more frequent self-initiated movements during negative deflections of slow cortical potentials (SCP). These negative deflections occur alongside an inner impulse reported by the meditator, which may lead to a voluntary act. This proof-of-principle demonstrates that combining first-person introspective data with neural signal analysis can advance understanding of the neural basis of voluntary acts, challenging interpretations of the classic Libet experiment.
Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews
August 1, 2025
Larry Douglas Fort, Cyril Costines, Marc Wittmann et al.
14 citations
A review of classification schemes for altered states of consciousness (ASCs) groups them into three types: those based on subjective experiences (state-based), those based on induction methods (method-based), and those based on neurophysiological mechanisms (neuro/physio-based). Comparing and extending these schemes can improve identification of neural correlates of consciousness and inform clinical research. The authors cluster concepts from state-based schemes to help quantify core ASC phenomenology for basic and clinical studies.
Consciousness and Cognition
April 1, 2025
Iraklis Pantazis, Marc Wittmann
5 citations
A crossover study with 34 participants found that 60 minutes of Floatation-REST (floating in a dark, quiet tank of thermoneutral salt water) produced significantly weaker body boundaries, greater time distortion, and more relaxation compared to Bed-REST. After floating, participants reported a stronger afterglow, more state mindfulness, and greater interoceptive awareness. Relaxation during floating fully explained the afterglow effect in a mediation analysis. These results align with psychedelic research, suggesting Floatation-REST can elicit similar afterglow experiences.
Journal of Cognitive Enhancement
October 11, 2021
Mark A. Elliott, Monika Zalewska, Marc Wittmann
5 citations
In a meditative state, time seems to slow and the present moment feels expanded. This study tested whether a mindfulness intervention changes the minimal duration of the psychological moment—the measurable "now." Participants completed a simultaneity-detection task before and after either a mindfulness exercise or listening to classical music. No overall difference in the psychological moment was found between groups or before versus after the interventions. However, a bias against reporting simultaneity after a subthreshold asynchrony—which normally shortens the psychological moment—was reduced after mindfulness. This suggests that brief mindfulness meditation can sharpen attentional focus and help normalize the perception of psychological time.
Frontiers in Psychology
January 1, 2025
Marc Wittmann, Carlos Montemayor, Mauro Dorato
1 citation
Building on the Stoic concept of self-regulation, this paper argues that contemporary findings from psychology and cognitive neuroscience do not refute free will but instead support and refine a Stoic view of it. Contrary to classical interpretations of Libet-type experiments, which are often cited to deny free will, the authors contend that such evidence undermines the idea that humans are passive recipients of spontaneous desires. Instead, people possess the capacity to regulate actions proactively by cultivating deliberate, voluntary intentions. Freedom arises from a meta-cognitive, hierarchical second-order will that can causally override first-order desires or impulsive habits. Choices are not entirely predetermined by upbringing or circumstances; they emerge from the capacity to reflect upon and respond to those influences, making the self a self-determined free agent.
Progress in Brain Research
January 1, 2024
Christine Flatten, Damisela Linares Gutierrez, Sebastian L. Kübel et al.
1 citation
A newly developed German questionnaire called the Inventory of Secular/Spiritual Wakefulness (WAKE-16) was tested in 36 expert meditators who primarily meditate in silence and 36 demographically matched non-meditators. Meditators scored significantly higher on the WAKE-16, indicating the instrument can distinguish between groups and thus has construct validity. Meditators also scored higher on mindfulness subscales of presence and acceptance, as well as on emotion regulation and body-related symbolization of emotions. Among meditators, wakefulness correlated with mindfulness, accepting one's own emotions, and experiencing overwhelming emotions; among non-meditators, only the correlation with accepting one's own emotions was significant. The findings support the WAKE-16 as a valid measure of wakefulness, defined as an expansive, stable state involving transformed vision, identity, and relationship to the world.
Phanês Journal For Jung History
November 30, 2021
Uwe Schellinger, Andreas Anton, Marc Wittmann
1 citation
Hans Bender, a German parapsychologist, met with C. G. Jung in December 1960, and their recorded discussion is presented in English for the first time. The article describes synchronicity through Bender's personal experiences during a drive to an Eranos Conference and a Parapsychology Foundation workshop in August 1960, while his mother suffered a fatal stroke. Bender, familiar with the route, had intensely emotional experiences at certain places that he later interpreted as synchronistic with her death.
bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory)
May 14, 2026
Shiva Khoshnoud, Federico Alvarez Igarzábal, Marc Wittmann
During flow, a state of full immersion in an activity, brain networks linked to self-referential thinking become less active. Using EEG microstate analysis of 43 people playing a video game, researchers found that two brain states associated with the default mode network (DMN) were shorter and occurred less often during flow compared to boredom or frustration. This suggests that flow reduces self-awareness by dampening DMN activity, similar to effects seen in meditation and psychedelic states.
BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies
November 6, 2025
Helena Hruby, Marc Wittmann, Stefan Schmidt et al.
Most people who float in a sensory isolation tank go through four distinct phases during a 60-minute session: acclimatization, a transitional phase, an altered state of consciousness (ASC), and finally reorientation. The ASC phase is marked by positive emotions, deep relaxation, loss of orientation in space and time, and reduced bodily sensations and thoughts. These characteristics emerge gradually and intensify over time. The findings suggest that the therapeutic benefits of Floatation-REST for mental health conditions may be linked to the experience of these altered states.
Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
July 25, 2025
Alan N Simmons, Marc Wittmann, Irian A Strigo
This chapter reviews the intellectual legacy of A.D. Bud Craig and advances understanding of interoception across three domains: bodily self, emotion, and subjective time. Beginning with foundational research on temperature and pain processing, it describes how interoceptive signals integrate to form bodily self-representation and emotional experiences, then culminates in how interoception shapes time perception, including in altered states of consciousness. The chapter points to future research on computational modeling of interoceptive processing, personalized treatments based on interoceptive principles, and clinical applications for psychiatric, neurological, and pain conditions, while outlining remaining gaps in continuing Craig's seminal career.
March 8, 2024
Christine Flatten, Damisela Linares Gutierrez, Sebastian L. Kübel et al.
preprint
A new German-language questionnaire measuring 'wakefulness'—a transformed state of being involving expanded vision, relationship to the world, subjective experience, identity, and outlook—was tested for construct validity. Expert meditators scored significantly higher on the wakefulness inventory than demographically matched non-meditators, supporting the instrument's ability to distinguish between groups. Meditators also scored higher on mindfulness subscales of presence and acceptance, and on emotion regulation and body-related symbolization of emotions. Among meditators, wakefulness correlated positively with mindfulness and accepting one's own emotions, and negatively with experiencing overwhelming emotions. In non-meditators, wakefulness correlated only with accepting one's own emotions.
Psychophysiology
April 1, 2026
Sura Genc, Elif Surer, Marc Wittmann et al.
A new method allows people to report their flow experience continuously in real time by pressing a foot pedal while playing a video game in virtual reality. Forty participants played Thumper under two conditions, with and without the pedal, while their heart activity was recorded. Using the pedal did not interfere with their flow experience or heart-rate variability, and the real-time reports correlated with post-task questionnaires. Heart-rate variability analyses linked high-frequency HRV and the low-frequency/high-frequency ratio to perceived flow, suggesting parasympathetic activity and autonomic balance may contribute to the flow state.
Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences
January 1, 2025
Marc Wittmann, Sylvie Droit-Volet
The sense of time is strongly embodied, rooted in the temporal dynamics of ascending physiological signals from the body. Functional neuroimaging and psychophysiological evidence show that subjective time judgments depend on the physical and emotional self. Emotions and related body feelings shape subjective time, and altered states of consciousness, such as meditative states, modulate perception of the physical state, thereby affecting the experience of time. The authors conclude that time perception is fundamentally based on bodily signals.
Scientific Reports
April 23, 2024
Helena Hruby, Stefan Schmidt, Justin S. Feinstein et al.
Floatation-REST, which minimizes sensory input by having people float in warm, salt-saturated water in a dark, silent tank, produces stronger altered states of consciousness—specifically a dissolving sense of body boundaries and distorted time perception—than simply lying on a waterbed in a dark, quiet room. In a crossover trial with 50 healthy adults, a 60-minute float session led to greater relaxation, less anxiety, and less tiredness compared to the control condition. The loss of body boundaries during floating directly contributed to the reduction in anxiety, pointing to a previously unknown mechanism behind floatation's calming effects.
PLoS One
January 1, 2021
Rui Miguel Costa, Arlindo Madeira, Matilde Barata et al.
Drinking a moderate dose of red wine (about 40.98 g of ethanol) in a wine bar designed for pleasurable drinking increases pleasure and arousal, slows the subjective passage of time, focuses attention on the present moment, and reduces body awareness. It also enhances imagination, insightfulness, originality of thoughts, and feelings of oneness with the environment, spiritual feelings, all-encompassing love, and profound peace. These changes occurred regardless of whether participants drank alone, in pairs, or in groups. Older age correlated with greater pleasure increases; younger age with greater fascination with the environment. The findings suggest that red wine in such a setting can trigger changes in consciousness similar to mystical-type states.
Behavioral Sciences
May 16, 2019
Damisela Linares Gutierrez, Sebastian L. Kübel, Anne Giersch et al.
Meditation alters how the brain integrates auditory beats over time, and these changes are linked to heart and breathing activity. In a pre-post longitudinal study, mindfulness meditators either meditated or listened to a story while heart and breathing were recorded. After meditation, the duration of temporal integration increased for the slowest metronome frequency (3-second intervals). Higher heart-rate variability (RMSSD) during meditation predicted longer integration at the fastest frequency (0.33-second intervals), while higher breathing rate predicted greater integration at 1-second intervals. The findings support the idea that meditation-induced physiological changes shape the temporal integration of sensory events, illustrating the embodiment of mental functioning.