Molecules - The Consciousness Library

Safety and Efficacy of Natural and Conventional Psychiatric Treatments: A Comparative Review of Mushroom-Derived Compounds and Medicinal Plants in the Management of Mental Disorders

Molecules September 7, 2026 Katarzyna Gawłowska, Katarzyna Kaja Nowakowska, Julia Wiktoria Makówka et al.

Standard pharmacotherapy for mental disorders, including depression and anxiety, is supported by extensive clinical validation and international treatment guidelines. However, it is frequently associated with limitations such as adverse side effects, low patient adherence, and the risk of relapse. Conventional approaches rely primarily on antidepressants, anxiolytics, mood stabilizers,...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31173130

Nitrous Oxide as a Recreational Drug of Abuse: Multi-Omics Insights into MAPK/ERK/CREB-Mediated Neurotoxicity and Energy Metabolism Collapse

Molecules August 1, 2026 J. Jia, Wen Zhang, Sitong Nan et al.

Nitrous oxide (N2O), commonly known as laughing gas, is widely used for its anesthetic and analgesic properties in medical settings. However, its recreational abuse has escalated, leading to severe neurological complications including cognitive impairment, yet the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, male C57BL/6 J mice were exposed to either normal air inhalation or...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31162844 Full text

Classic Psychedelics for Treating Chronic Pain: Mechanism and Clinical Translation

Molecules July 27, 2026 Hongyu Chen, Bowen Ke, Ruotian Jiang

Chronic pain is a complex disorder of central nervous system maladaptation, perpetuated not only by ascending nociceptive transmission but also by entrenched prior expectations. Conventional analgesics typically fail to reverse this cognitive rigidity and the ensuing pathological cycles. Classic psychedelics, however, are emerging as a promising avenue to help address this therapeutic impasse....

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31152611

The MDPV Derivative α-PHP Regulates Cellular Differentiation and Triggers Apoptotic Cell Death and Ultrastructural Changes in Murine 3D Neurospheres

Molecules July 13, 2026 Fabrizio De Luca, Cinzia Brenna, Marta Bassi et al.

Cumulative reports of psychiatric and neurological outcomes due to synthetic cathinones continue to raise public concern. However, the understanding of the neurotoxic mechanism of action is still poorly understood, particularly for the under-explored αPHP, one of the main MDPV derivatives. In particular, the effects of this synthetic drug on neural stem/progenitor cell cultures are still...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31142453 Neurosphere Apoptosis Programmed cell death Neural stem cell +14

Acute Toxicity of Three Synthetic Cannabinoids: First In Vivo Preclinical Study

Molecules July 1, 2026 S. Filipiuc, Carmen Solcan, B. Tamba et al.

Background and Objectives: Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are new psychoactive substances associated with acute intoxications. Experimental data obtained under controlled and comparable conditions remain limited for this category of compounds. This descriptive, hypothesis-generating screening study aimed to characterize the acute toxicity profile of three SCs, JWH-007, AM-694, and MAB-CHMINACA....

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31132365 Full text

DESI-MSI-Based Multi-Organ Distribution Mapping of Psilocin in Zebrafish

Molecules June 18, 2026 Mengxuan Dong, Yi Zhang, Manzhu Cao et al.

Psilocybin, a psychedelic drug with reported anxiolytic and antidepressant potential, is rapidly metabolized to its active metabolite psilocin. However, a lack of adequate toxicity studies and tissue distribution studies currently restricts its development and application. This study combined behavioral assays in zebrafish with desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31122143 Psilocybin Zebrafish Mass spectrometry imaging Metabolite +6

Electrocorticographic Changes and Neuronal Maturation in the Antidepressant-like and Anxiolytic Effects of Micro- or Macrodosing of Psilocybe cubensis Mushroom in Mice

Molecules April 18, 2026 Flor Eréndira Sánchez-cortés, Nelly Maritza Vega-Rivera, Raúl Iván Escamilla-Orozco et al.

Mushroom use dates back to ancient times, and it currently remains significant among indigenous and urban populations as a medicinal option. Psilocybe species are suggested to modify emotions when administered in macro- or microdose form for the treatment of anxiety and depression, both often affected by a delayed onset and adverse effects of current pharmacological therapy. The objective of...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31081331 Anxiolytic Fluoxetine Hippocampus Corticosterone +5

Ibogaine: Therapeutic Potential, Cardiac Safety, and Translational Perspectives in the Treatment of Substance Use Disorders—A Scoping Review

Molecules February 4, 2026 Monica Patrícia Esperança, N. N. S. Gomes, Maria Graça Campos 1 citation

Substance Use Disorder (SUD) constitutes a major and persistent global public health burden, accounting for approximately 600,000 deaths annually, largely driven by opioid use. Despite substantial advances in addiction neuroscience, currently approved therapeutic strategies remain limited in efficacy, as they predominantly target isolated neurobiological processes and fail to concurrently...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules31030545 Addiction Translational research Adverse effect Preclinical research +4

Psilocin, the Psychoactive Metabolite of Psilocybin, Modulates Select Neuroimmune Functions of Microglial Cells in a 5-HT2 Receptor-Dependent Manner

Molecules October 28, 2024 Ishvin Riar, Andis Klegeris, Kennedy R. Wiens et al. 21 citations

Neuroinflammation that is caused by microglia, the main immune cells of the brain, contributes to neurodegenerative diseases. Psychedelics, including psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), possess certain anti-inflammatory properties and, therefore, should be considered as drug candidates for treating neuroinflammatory pathologies. When ingested, psilocybin is rapidly dephosphorylated...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules29215084 Psilocybin Hallucinogen Metabolite Pharmacology +1

An Overview on the Hallucinogenic Peyote and Its Alkaloid Mescaline: The Importance of Context, Ceremony and Culture

Molecules December 5, 2023 Marjolein Doesburg-Van Kleffens, Amy Marisa Zimmermann-Klemd, Carsten Gründemann 13 citations

Peyote (Lophophora williamsii) is a cactus that contains various biologically active alkaloids—such as pellotine, anhalonidine, hordenine and mescaline. Here, mescaline induces the psychoactive effects of peyote through the activation of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor and the subsequent release of calcium (Ca2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Moreover, an evaluation of the therapeutic...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules28247942 Mescaline Ayahuasca Psilocybin Context archaeology +4

The Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist 16-Bromo Salvinorin A Has Anti-Cocaine Effects without Significant Effects on Locomotion, Food Reward, Learning and Memory, or Anxiety and Depressive-like Behaviors.

Molecules June 19, 2023

The Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist 16-Bromo Salvinorin A Has Anti-Cocaine Effects without Significant Effects on Locomotion, Food Reward, Learning and Memory, or Anxiety and Depressive-like Behaviors.

DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124848 Full text

The Effect of Combined Treatment of Psilocybin and Eugenol on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Brain Inflammation in Mice

Molecules March 14, 2023 Timur Zanikov, Marta Gerasymchuk, Gregory Ian Robinson et al. 48 citations

Inflammation is an organism’s biological defense mechanism. Acute and chronic inflammation of the body triggers the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory pathways that can affect the content of cytokines in the brain and thus cause brain inflammation. Disorders such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are often associated with elevated inflammation. Recently, positive and...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules28062624 Psilocybin Eugenol Inflammation Pharmacology +3

Psychedelics: Alternative and Potential Therapeutic Options for Treating Mood and Anxiety Disorders

Molecules April 13, 2022 Henry Lowe, Ngeh J. Toyang, Blair Steele et al. 53 citations

The word “psychedelic” (psyche (i.e., the mind or soul) and delos (i.e., to show)) has Greek origin and was first coined by psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1956, who had been conducting research on lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) at the time. Psychedelic drugs such as N,N-DMT/DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine), 5-MeO-DMT (5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), MDMA...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules27082520 Psilocybin Lysergic acid diethylamide Anxiety Addiction +3

Components of Banisteriopsis caapi, a Plant Used in the Preparation of the Psychoactive Ayahuasca, Induce Anti-Inflammatory Effects in Microglial Cells

Molecules April 13, 2022 Beatriz Werneck Lopes Santos, Daniel C. Moreira, Tatiana Karla Dos Santos Borges et al. 25 citations

Banisteriopsis caapi is used to prepare the psychoactive beverage ayahuasca, and both have therapeutic potential for the treatment of many central nervous system (CNS) conditions. This study aimed to isolate new bioactive compounds from B. caapi extract and evaluate their biological activity, and that of the known β-carboline components of the plant (harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine),...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules27082500 Ayahuasca Harmine Harmaline Pharmacology +10

In Vitro Study of the Bioavailability and Bioaccessibility of the Main Compounds Present in Ayahuasca Beverages

Molecules September 13, 2021 Joana Gonçalves, Miguel Castilho, Tiago Rosado et al. 9 citations

Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage that contains the psychoactive compound N,N-dimethyltryptamine and β-carboline alkaloids. This study aims at determining in vitro the bioavailability and bioaccessibility of the main compounds present in decoctions of four individual plants, in a commercial mixture and in four mixtures of two individual plants used in the preparation of Ayahuasca. The...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules26185555 Bioavailability Cytotoxicity Chromatography Incubation +1

The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin

Molecules May 15, 2021 Henry Lowe, Ngeh J. Toyang, Blair Steele et al. 240 citations

The psychedelic effects of some plants and fungi have been known and deliberately exploited by humans for thousands of years. Fungi, particularly mushrooms, are the principal source of naturally occurring psychedelics. The mushroom extract, psilocybin has historically been used as a psychedelic agent for religious and spiritual ceremonies, as well as a therapeutic option for neuropsychiatric...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102948 Psilocybin Counterculture Hallucinogen Psychotherapist

Molecular and Functional Imaging Studies of Psychedelic Drug Action in Animals and Humans

Molecules April 22, 2021 Paul Cumming, Milan Scheidegger, Dario Dornbierer et al. 45 citations

Hallucinogens are a loosely defined group of compounds including LSD, N,N-dimethyltryptamines, mescaline, psilocybin/psilocin, and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methamphetamine (DOM), which can evoke intense visual and emotional experiences. We are witnessing a renaissance of research interest in hallucinogens, driven by increasing awareness of their psychotherapeutic potential. As such, we now present a...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092451 Action physics Drug action Pharmacology

Potential Risks of Plant Constituents in Dietary Supplements: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Peganum harmala Seeds

Molecules March 4, 2021 Matilde Calderoni, Maddalena Altare, Luca Mastracci et al. 8 citations

The free online trading of herbal mixtures useful for various purposes facilitates the circulation of dangerous herbs or plant parts. This is the case, for example, of the illegal trade in seeds of Peganum harmala (Pgh), which contain alkaloids capable of inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO) and are therefore used in hallucinogenic preparations, such as the psychedelic drink ayahuasca. The...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules26051368 Ayahuasca Peganum harmala Identification biology Traditional medicine +2

Correction: Simão, A.Y., et al. Evaluation of the Cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca Beverages. Molecules 2020, 25, 5594

Molecules February 26, 2021 Ana Y. Simão, Joana Gonçalves, Ana Gradillas et al. correction

This paper [...]

DOI: 10.3390/molecules26051236 Full text N/a

Evaluation of the Cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca Beverages

Molecules November 28, 2020 Ana Y. Simão, Joana Gonçalves, Ana Gradillas et al. 19 citations

Ayahuasca is a beverage consumed at shamanic ceremonies and currently has gained popularity on recreational scenarios. It contains beta-carboline alkaloids and N,N-dimethyltryptamine, which possesses hallucinogenic effects. Only a few studies have elicited the psychoactive effects and the dose of such compounds on neurological dopaminergic cells or animals. In this work, we aimed to study the...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules25235594 Ayahuasca Peganum harmala Cytotoxicity Dopaminergic +6

Stability Evaluation of DMT and Harmala Alkaloids in Ayahuasca Tea Samples

Molecules April 29, 2020 Gabriela de Oliveira Silveira, Rafael G. Dos Santos, Felipe Rebello Lourenço et al. 36 citations

Ayahuasca tea is a hallucinogenic beverage used for religious purposes in Brazil and many other countries that has therapeutic potential in the treatment of some mental health disorders. In the context of psychedelic research, quantification of the tea’s main alkaloids prior to its administration in animal or human studies is essential. For this reason, this study aims to provide information...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules25092072 Ayahuasca Harmine Harmaline Peganum harmala +6

Salvinorin A Does Not Affect Seizure Threshold in Mice

Molecules March 7, 2020 Katarzyna Socała, Urszula Doboszewska, Piotr Wlaź

The κ-opioid receptor has recently gained attention as a new molecular target in the treatment of many psychiatric and neurological disorders including epilepsy. Salvinorin A is a potent plant-derived hallucinogen that acts as a highly selective κ-opioid receptor agonist. It has unique structure and pharmacological properties, but its influence on seizure susceptibility has not been studied so...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051204

Natural Psychoplastogens As Antidepressant Agents

Molecules March 5, 2020 J Benko, Stanislava Vranková 18 citations

Increasing prevalence and burden of major depressive disorder presents an unavoidable problem for psychiatry. Existing antidepressants exert their effect only after several weeks of continuous treatment. In addition, their serious side effects and ineffectiveness in one-third of patients call for urgent action. Recent advances have given rise to the concept of psychoplastogens. These compounds...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051172 Psilocybin Anxiety Antidepressant Depression economics +2

Identification of 1-Butyl-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (1B-LSD) in Seized Blotter Paper Using an Integrated Workflow of Analytical Techniques and Chemo-Informatics

Molecules February 7, 2020 Emmanouil Tsochatzis, Joao Alberto Lopes, Fabiano Reniero et al. 22 citations

The rapid dispersion of new psychoactive substances (NPS) presents challenges to customs services and analytical laboratories, which are involved in their detection and characterization. When the seized material is limited in quantity or of a complex nature, or when the target substance is present in very small amounts, the need to use advanced analytical techniques, efficient workflows and...

DOI: 10.3390/molecules25030712 Lysergic acid diethylamide Identification biology Workflow Informatics +3

The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation

Molecules January 29, 2015 Xaver Koenig, Karlheinz Hilber 123 citations

The plant indole alkaloid ibogaine has shown promising anti-addictive properties in animal studies. Ibogaine is also anti-addictive in humans as the drug alleviates drug craving and impedes relapse of drug use. Although not licensed as therapeutic drug and despite safety concerns, ibogaine is currently used as an anti-addiction medication in alternative medicine in dozens of clinics worldwide....

DOI: 10.3390/molecules20022208 Addiction Drug Pharmacology Indole alkaloid +1

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