How does mindfulness shape affective experience during exercise? A think-aloud study of real-time psychological processes.
Jiao Liu, Jian-Fen Pan, Wen-Jing Liu, Yue Qiu, Zhi-Xiong Mao
Psychology of Sport And Exercise July 1, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2026.103117 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Within-subjects experimental crossover design Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 36 |
| Population | Adults with low or high habitual physical activity levels |
| Interventions | Mindfulness Distraction Control |
| Duration | 20-minute moderate-intensity treadmill running sessions |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Keywords | Affective valence Attentional processes Interoception Mindfulness-based exercise Physical activity level Think-aloud protocol |
| Key findings | Mindfulness during exercise robustly increased internal focus (interoceptive monitoring and adaptive self-regulation) compared to distraction and control conditions. |
Abstract
Positive affect during exercise is a key predictor of continued participation, yet the mechanisms through which mindfulness-based exercise influences affect remain largely inferred from retrospective, outcome-focused designs. This study used a think-aloud (TA) methodology to capture consciously accessible, moment-to-moment experience during exercise and to test whether a single bout of mindfulness-based exercise alters affect via in-task process shifts. Thirty-six adults were assigned to low or high habitual physical activity groups and completed three counterbalanced sessions of 20-min moderate-intensity treadmill running under mindfulness, distraction, and control conditions. Affective valence was assessed pre-, during, and post-exercise using the Feeling Scale. TA verbalizations recorded during exercise were transcribed and coded into theoretically grounded themes reflecting interoceptive monitoring, active self-regulation, external monitoring, and distraction. A process-level Internal Orientation Index (IOI) was computed to index the balance of internally versus externally oriented processes. Mixed-effects models showed that mindfulness robustly increased IOI relative to both distraction and control, indicating a consistent shift toward real-time interoceptive monitoring and adaptive self-regulation during exercise. Window-level analyses provided no compelling evidence of systematic temporal modulation across the bout. Conclusively, the TA evidence demonstrates that mindfulness changes how exercise is experienced in real time by strengthening internal monitoring and regulation, offering direct process-level support for proposed mechanisms of mindfulness-based exercise.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment | 2003 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 41 |
| Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2000 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 145 |
| Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults | 2008 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 139 |
| Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students | 2007 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 40 |
| Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2004 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 73 |
Citations in the library
Cites 5
- The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003
- Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Assessment January 27, 2006
- Exploring the Use of Meditation as a Valuable Tool to Counteract Sedentariness. Frontiers in Psychology February 25, 2020
- Effects of mindfulness on psychological and psychophysiological responses during self-paced walking. Psychophysiology January 17, 2020
- Mindfulness and mood stimulate each other in an upward spiral: a mindful walking intervention using experience sampling. Mindfulness 2016