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Altered states of consciousness

The broad landscape of consciousness that departs from ordinary waking awareness, however induced.

State of the evidence

Synthesized

Synthesized from 25 studies in the library · AI-generated, grounded in the abstracts below

Found by searching the library for Altered states of consciousness, non-ordinary states, altered consciousness, ASC, then ranked by relevance.

Research on altered states of consciousness (ASC) shows they can be reliably measured using standardized psychometric instruments (e.g., the OAV/5D-ASC questionnaire) and are characterized by common dimensions such as oceanic boundlessness, dread of ego dissolution, and visionary restructuralization. Neuroimaging studies indicate that ASCs induced by psychedelics like ayahuasca and LSD involve decreased default mode network activity and connectivity, with effects mediated by the 5-HT2A receptor. While preliminary evidence suggests therapeutic potential for conditions like depression and addiction, the evidence base is dominated by early-stage trials with small samples and open-label designs, limiting confidence in durability and generalizability.

Evidence by study

Direction is which way each study's own result points, not our rating of the study.

What the directions mean
Supports:
the study found the intervention worked, or its hypothesis held.
Opposes:
it found the opposite, no benefit or a harm.
No effect:
no significant difference either way.
Mixed:
effects in both directions within the same study.
Unclear:
the abstract does not report a direction.
Rapid antidepressant effects of the psychedelic ayahuasca in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized placebo-controlled trial 2018
Supports

Ayahuasca produced significant antidepressant effects compared to placebo at days 1, 2, and 7, with large effect sizes.

RCT Sample size: 29

Psychometric Evaluation of the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (OAV) 2010
Unclear

The OAV questionnaire's 11 lower-order scales were constructed and demonstrated desirable psychometric properties for assessing drug-induced ASC.

psychometric validation

Altered States of Consciousness 1966
Unclear

This theoretical paper integrates knowledge on ASC, discussing conditions for emergence, factors influencing manifestations, common denominators, and adaptive/maladaptive functions.

theoretical

The Standardized Psychometric Assessment of Altered States of Consciousness (ASCs) in Humans 1998
Unclear

ASC are characterized by three oblique dimensions (Oceanic Boundlessness, Dread of Ego Dissolution, Visionary Restructuralization) irrespective of induction method, with satisfactory reliability and validity.

observational Sample size: 1133

The Subjective Effects of Psychedelics Are Necessary for Their Enduring Therapeutic Effects. 2020
Supports

The paper argues that subjective effects of psychedelics are necessary for their enduring therapeutic benefits, beyond underlying neurobiological mechanisms.

theoretical

Antidepressant effects of a single dose of ayahuasca in patients with recurrent depression: a preliminary report 2015
Supports

Ayahuasca showed fast-acting anxiolytic and antidepressant effects in patients with a depressive disorder.

open-label trial

Antidepressant Effects of a Single Dose of Ayahuasca in Patients With Recurrent Depression 2015
Supports

Ayahuasca administration was associated with significant decreases in depression scores from 80 minutes to day 21 and increased blood perfusion in brain regions implicated in depression.

open-label trial Sample size: 17

The Psychedelic State Induced by Ayahuasca Modulates the Activity and Connectivity of the Default Mode Network 2015
Supports

Ayahuasca decreased activity and connectivity in the default mode network, supporting the link between ASC and DMN modulation.

observational (fMRI) Sample size: 10

Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness. 2005
Unclear

ASC can be characterized by four dimensions (activation, awareness span, self-awareness, sensory dynamics) and are brought about by compromised brain structure, transient brain dynamics, and neurochemical processes.

review

Changes in global and thalamic brain connectivity in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness are attributable to the 5-HT2A receptor 2018
Supports

LSD reduced associative and increased sensory-somatomotor brain connectivity, and these effects were fully blocked by the 5-HT2A antagonist ketanserin, implicating the 5-HT2A receptor.

RCT Sample size: 24

Intrinsic Brain Activity in Altered States of Consciousness 2008
Unclear

Altered states of consciousness (e.g., sleep, anesthesia, coma) are associated with systematic impairment of associative frontoparieto-cingulate areas and coherent BOLD fluctuations in the default-mode network.

review

Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans. 1999
Supports

MDMA significantly increased blood pressure, heart rate, and pupillary diameter, and increased plasma cortisol and prolactin levels.

RCT Sample size: 8

Short-term autonomic and cardiovascular effects of mindfulness body scan meditation 2006
Supports

Mindfulness body scan meditation increased cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) compared to relaxation or control, indicating increased parasympathetic activity.

RCT Sample size: 32

Human Psychopharmacology of Hoasca, A Plant Hallucinogen Used in Ritual Context in Brazil 1996
Supports

Long-term ayahuasca use was associated with remission of psychopathology and no evidence of personality or cognitive deterioration, with high functional status.

observational Sample size: 30

Ayahuasca-Assisted Therapy for Addiction: Results from a Preliminary Observational Study in Canada 2013
Supports

Ayahuasca-assisted therapy was associated with statistically significant improvements in factors related to problematic substance use.

observational

Therapeutic properties of ayahuasca component N,N-Dimethyltryptamine in a pre-clinical model of Parkinson's disease. 2026
Supports

DMT administration resulted in molecular changes consistent with reduced neuroinflammation and neuronal preservation, and behavioral improvements in a Parkinson's disease model.

preclinical

Beyond Enthusiasm: Ayahuasca and the Future of Depression Research. 2026
Unclear

This paper discusses ayahuasca and the future of depression research, but no specific findings are reported in the abstract.

theoretical

Open MDMA: An Evidence-Based Synthesis, Theory, and Manual for MDMA Therapy Based on Memory Reconsolidation, Complex Systems, and the Defense Cascade 2026
Supports

The paper argues that MDMA therapy durably improves mental illnesses through memory reconsolidation, based on a theoretical model and practical guidance.

theoretical

DMT und Ayahuasca / DMT and Ayahuasca 2026
Unclear

This bilingual full work provides a transdisciplinary scientific overview of DMT and ayahuasca across eight disciplines, with explicit levels of certainty.

review

Registered Clinical Trials of Ayahuasca and DMT: A Scoping Review. 2026
Unclear

Registered clinical trials of ayahuasca and DMT are dominated by early-stage development (phase I), with conservative eligibility criteria and primary outcomes focused on safety and subjective effects.

review

The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness. 2026
Unclear

Music-induced trance involves partially overlapping neural dynamics, including increased low-frequency synchronization and shifts from executive control to limbic and default mode networks.

review

Global pressure on ayahuasca threatens Amazonian plants and knowledge systems 2026
Unclear

Global pressure on ayahuasca threatens Amazonian plants and Indigenous knowledge systems, highlighting environmental and cultural concerns.

theoretical

EXPANSÃO GLOBAL DA AYAHUASCA E SAÚDE MENTAL 2026
Unclear

The global expansion of ayahuasca presents both psychotherapeutic potentials and psychosocial challenges, requiring respectful exchange with Indigenous knowledge.

theoretical

Koshering Psychedelics: Ayahuasca in the Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jewish World 2026
Mixed

Ayahuasca use among Haredi Jews was primarily therapeutic, with distinct Jewish visionary content and strengthened religious belief, but also religious tensions and strategies to address them.

qualitative Sample size: 23

Psychometric validation of the French version of the five-dimensional altered states of consciousness questionnaire (5D-ASC) and associated 11 OAV subscales. 2026
Unclear

The French 5D-ASC and 11 OAV subscales showed acceptable psychometric properties, with the 11-subscale solution demonstrating better fit than higher-order structures.

psychometric validation Sample size: 777

Points of agreement

  • ASC can be reliably measured using standardized psychometric instruments (e.g., OAV/5D-ASC) with common dimensions across induction methods.
  • Psychedelic-induced ASC involve decreased default mode network activity and connectivity, mediated by the 5-HT2A receptor.
  • Preliminary evidence suggests therapeutic potential of ayahuasca for depression and addiction, with fast-acting effects.
  • Long-term ayahuasca use is not associated with cognitive deterioration and may be linked to improved psychological functioning.

Conflicts

  • The role of subjective effects in therapeutic outcomes is debated: one paper argues they are necessary (15637), while others focus on neurobiological mechanisms.
  • Some studies report large effect sizes for ayahuasca's antidepressant effects (17395), but the evidence base is limited by small samples and open-label designs.
  • The global expansion of ayahuasca presents both therapeutic opportunities and risks of cultural appropriation, with differing perspectives on integration.

Gaps

  • Durability of therapeutic effects beyond short-term follow-up (e.g., 7 days, 21 days) is not well established.
  • Most clinical trials are early-phase with small samples and conservative eligibility criteria, limiting generalizability.
  • Blinding and placebo control are challenging in psychedelic research due to the subjective intensity of effects.
  • Long-term safety and potential adverse effects of repeated ayahuasca use are not systematically studied.
  • The role of set, setting, and cultural context in shaping ASC outcomes is acknowledged but not rigorously controlled across studies.
Browse these studies in the library
How we analyze this

This synthesis reads the 15 most-cited and 10 most recent studies whose primary subject is Altered states of consciousness, up to 25 in all. The most-cited set anchors the established evidence, and the recent set surfaces work that is too new to have gathered citations yet.

A study qualifies only when Altered states of consciousness or a known alias appears in its title or keywords, so broad reviews that mention it only in passing are left out. Each study is read from its abstract, strongest evidence first, and the summary reports the direction of the results along with any conflicts and gaps.

Ask your own question in the Research Synthesis Tool

Latest monthly recap: June 2026 →

1,851 articles · 677 from the last two years · 205,735 participants across 552 studies reporting sample size

Common study designs

review 270 experimental study 63 observational study 72 observational cohort 143 theoretical or philosophical paper 533

Research

Synthesize the evidence → Search all →

Exploring the benefits of altered states of consciousness and reduced experiential avoidance for mental well-being: insights from a global study on high ventilation breathwork

Frontiers in Psychology July 30, 2026 Lena Erdmann, Barbara Breitenstein, Maria Badanova et al.

In a cross-sectional online study of 324 participants from 23 countries, lower experiential avoidance during a high ventilation breathwork session predicted higher mental well-being afterward. Altered states of consciousness during the session predicted lower experiential avoidance, and more intense altered states combined with fewer challenging experiences predicted better post-session well-being. Experiential avoidance did not predict emotional breakthroughs, nor did it mediate the links between altered states or challenging experiences and well-being. The authors suggest that reduced experiential avoidance and more intense altered states during breathwork enhance mental well-being, with blissful states within altered states potentially fostering openness and engagement.

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1777341 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Breathwork Challenging experiences Emotional breakthrough Experiential avoidance +1

O BARDO SOMÁTICO: A EXPERIENCIAÇÃO DE MORTES, RENASCIMENTOS E A CONQUISTA DA GRAÇA ATRAVÉS DO ENRAIZAMENTO ORIENTADO E DA REGULAÇÃO NERVOSA

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) July 14, 2026 Sandra Regina (Sandra Anaki - Deva Yasha) Pereira

The article proposes a theoretical-practical correlation between the transition of consciousness described in the Tibetan Book of the Dead (Bardo Thodol) and Alexander Lowen's concepts of grounding and bodily grace in Bioenergetic Analysis. It argues that Bardo states—constant cycles of death and rebirth—are not merely metaphysical events but continuous somatic processes occurring in the musculature, respiration, and the body's energetic flow. The article analyzes nervous system dysregulation that arises when seeking altered states of consciousness without proper biological and somatic grounding. It proposes therapeutic body management through containment, oil application, and touch as the indispensable somatic foundation for returning to reality, serving as a basis for integrated, ethical, and transdisciplinary work with psychotherapy and psychiatry.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.21366901 (opens in new tab) Tantra Taste Humanities Art +1

The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness.

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews July 1, 2026 Athanasia Kontouli, Michael J Hove, Alexandre Lehmann et al.

Trance states induced by music, from shamanic rituals to electronic dance music raves, share common musical features and cultural narratives. Anthropological and neuroscientific evidence suggests that different forms of trance engage partially overlapping neural dynamics, including increased low-frequency brain wave synchronization and a shift from executive control networks to limbic and default mode networks. These patterns reflect the interplay of cognitive, emotional, and sensory systems, though current empirical evidence remains fragmented and methodologically heterogeneous. The review emphasizes trance as both a cultural and biological phenomenon and calls for integrating phenomenological and neurophysiological data to build comprehensive models of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness.

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106706 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Shamanism Music-induced trance Neuroimaging Raves

Non-Ordinary States of Consciousness and Human Transformation: A Narrative Literature Review of Neural, Physiological, and Phenomenological Patterns Through a Quantum Science Lens

Journal of Quantum Science of Consciousness. June 29, 2026 Allison Saltzman

Non-ordinary states of consciousness (NOSC), such as those arising from meditation, yoga, breathwork, psychedelics, near-death experiences, and mystical states, involve coordinated shifts across neural, physiological, and phenomenological dimensions rather than isolated changes at a single level. These states are associated with alterations in self-referential brain networks, brain wave activity, functional connectivity, autonomic regulation, interoceptive awareness, self-boundaries, time and body perception, unity, meaning, intuitive insight, and interconnectedness. Such shifts may contribute to psychological transformation by loosening ordinary patterns of self-reference and opening access to expanded awareness, meaning, connection, and potential. However, transformation is not automatic; lasting change depends on intention, context, continued practice, and integration.

DOI: 10.69573/jqsc.2026.5.1.18-40 (opens in new tab) Mysticism Consciousness Embodied cognition Narrative +9

Trait absorption as predictor of altered states of consciousness across three relaxation induction methods

PsyArXiv June 26, 2026 preprint

Guided meditation reduced arousal and time-related thoughts compared to a control condition or a Ganzfeld (multimodal sensory stimulation) condition, indicating decreased mind wandering and enhanced relaxation. In the Ganzfeld condition, reduced body boundary salience was linked to positive emotional states. Higher trait absorption predicted diminished body boundary salience in both the control and Ganzfeld conditions, suggesting that individual differences in absorptive capacity modulate susceptibility to altered-states-of-consciousness-like experiences. The findings highlight both shared and distinct effects of different Restricted Environmental Stimulation Techniques (REST) variants on subjective experiences.

DOI: 10.31234/osf.io/knqwr_v1 (opens in new tab)

The AASC Description of Consciousness

Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) June 20, 2026 Amos Jay Maley Maley

Consciousness is defined as a subject-indexed referential quotient interface where experiential records acquire unique, invariant, reusable referents. Qualia are classified as non-skin qualitative tensors—differences in qualitative profile that preserve standing while altering the complete qualitative/referential profile of the conscious interface. The paper argues that mechanisms like report, computation, global broadcast, integrated information, or neural correlates are insufficient alone to fix experiential reference. Artificial systems are not excluded by substrate but require full interface certification. Third-person evidence needs model-relative bridge certificates. The account treats consciousness as a fixed-domain admissibility interface and qualia as the non-skin qualitative tensors of that referentially fixed interface.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20773878 (opens in new tab) Consciousness Quotient Qualia Function biology +7

Psychometric validation of the French version of the five-dimensional altered states of consciousness questionnaire (5D-ASC) and associated 11 OAV subscales.

Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry June 20, 2026 Ewen Kervadec, Pauline Mathieu, Baptiste Fauvel et al.

A French translation of the Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) questionnaire was psychometrically validated using data from 777 participants who recalled a past naturalistic psychedelic experience. The 11-subscale structure showed better fit than higher-order models, though fit indices fell slightly below conventional thresholds. Internal consistency was excellent for global scores (α = 0.95) and satisfactory across subscales (α = 0.63–0.84). Measurement invariance across substance categories was confirmed, with latent factor differences aligning with known pharmacological profiles. The findings provide preliminary evidence supporting the French 5D-ASC's validity, enabling francophone research linking subjective experience to therapeutic outcomes.

DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2026.111770 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Ketamine MDMA 5d-asc Consciousness alteration +3

An exploratory study of breathwork-induced altered states of consciousness in experienced practitioners: the airways to alteration (A2A) trial

Frontiers in Psychology June 10, 2026 Guy W. Fincham, Edward Caddye, Amy Kartar et al.

A single session of high ventilation breathwork produced larger altered states of consciousness—including mystical experience, emotional breakthrough, and feelings of oneness—than body scan meditation in 24 healthy adults. One week later, breathwork was associated with greater psychological insight and self-reported behavioral change. Both groups showed improvements in stress, anxiety, depression, and well-being over time. These preliminary findings suggest breathwork can induce psychedelic-like effects and support further confirmatory research.

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1851882 (opens in new tab) Mysticism Exploratory research Context archaeology Altered state +9

Brain-body integromics of the ayahuasca experience.

Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie June 1, 2026 Francisco Madrid-Gambin, Pablo Mallaroni, Noemí Haro et al.

The psychedelic state induced by ayahuasca arises from coordinated, system-level interactions between peripheral metabolism and brain network dynamics, rather than isolated neurochemical events. In 20 experienced ceremonial users, the subjective dimensions of oceanic boundlessness, visionary restructuralization, and auditory alterations covaried with circulating DMT and β-carbolines, shifts in lipid, amino acid, and energy metabolism, and reconfiguration of dorsal attention and default mode network connectivity. Shared features across these experiences were most strongly linked to endocannabinoid-related N-acylethanolamines, acylglycerols, and ceramides, extending beyond canonical serotonergic models to downstream lipid-signaling and metabolic processes. The findings offer translational insight into metabolic pathways that may modulate brain function and subjective response.

DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2026.119391 (opens in new tab) Full text (opens in new tab) Ayahuasca Dimethyltryptamine Connectome Integromics +2

Psychotherapeutic Mechanisms of Holotropic Breathwork Through Charles Tart's Model of Altered States of Consciousness: A Conceptual Analysis

The Korean East West Mind Science Association May 31, 2026 SungShin Hong, Sunghyun Park

Holotropic Breathwork, developed by Stanislav and Christina Grof, is an experiential technique whose psychotherapeutic mechanisms are theoretically explored using Charles T. Tart's model of altered states of consciousness. Tart's concepts of set, setting, and trigger, along with stages of consciousness change, are linked to the session structure of Holotropic Breathwork. Therapeutic change may involve disrupting and reorganizing rigid psychological patterns through a new discrete state of consciousness (d-SoC), which are then reintegrated upon returning to ordinary consciousness. The quality of set and setting, rather than the altered state itself, is critical for determining whether the experience leads to therapeutic benefit or psychological crisis. This analysis aims to strengthen theoretical foundations for clinical application in transpersonal psychotherapy.

DOI: 10.55586/kewms.2026.29.1.127 (opens in new tab) Altered state Consciousness Experiential learning State computer science +15

Clinical trials

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