Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews - The Consciousness Library

Psychedelics do not always enhance cognitive flexibility: The potential role of time-varying effects on reward learning processes

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews May 30, 2026 Raquel Kosted, Manoj K. Doss, Jennifer J. Donegan et al. 1 citation

Although research on psychedelics (hallucinogenic serotonin 2 A or 5-HT2A agonists) has shown initial promise in ameliorating a range of psychiatric conditions, the mechanisms by which psychedelics promote therapeutic benefits have yet to be elucidated. Researchers have posited enhancements in cognitive flexibility as a transdiagnostic mechanism through which psychedelics could disrupt...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106788 Full text Cognition Reward system Animal learning Perception +2

Methodological moderators of psilocybin-assisted therapy in depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews January 24, 2026 Omer A. Syed, Benjamin Tsang, Sean M. Nestor et al.

Psilocybin-assisted therapy (PAT) is an emerging intervention for depression. Though several clinical trials report promising results for PAT in treating depression, there remains a need for consensus on optimal methodologies and standardization of PAT protocols. The objective of this review was to assess the efficacy of PAT in treating depressive symptoms and to systematically examine the...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106573 Treatment-resistant depression Major depressive disorder Psilocybin Antidepressant +13

Psychedelic experiences elicited by serotonergic psychedelics: Molecular mechanisms and functional connectivity changes in the brain

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews December 16, 2025 Rivka Vollebregt, A. J. Storm, Paul J. Lucassen et al. 3 citations

Classical psychedelics, like lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and psilocybin, can alter perception, emotion, and cognition, and have shown promise as 're-purposed' treatments for some psychiatric disorders. Recent trials have, e.g., demonstrated rapid and sustained symptom relief in treatment-resistant depression. While promising as a treatment, the...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106529 Serotonergic Default mode network Psilocybin Lysergic acid diethylamide +4

Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) as a risk factor for psychosis: A systematic review of the literature

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews October 19, 2025 Alessio Mosca, Gianluca Mancusi, Stefania Chiappini et al. 6 citations

Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are increasingly used by young individuals for their psychoactive effects and have been frequently associated with the emergence of psychotic symptoms and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. However, it remains unclear whether NPS use directly increases the risk of psychosis onset or whether individuals with a predisposition to psychosis are more likely to...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106431 Psychosis Schizophrenia object-oriented programming Risk factor Synthetic cannabinoids +6

LSD: Mechanisms and relevance to the treatment of depression

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews October 10, 2025 Amel Bouloufa, Sarah Delcourte, Thomas Delannay et al. 3 citations

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent psychiatric conditions worldwide, affecting over 350 million people. Standard treatments, primarily antidepressants targeting serotonin, noradrenaline, and/or dopamine, are based on the monoamine hypothesis, which links depression to imbalances in these neurotransmitters. A sizable fraction of patients, however, does not get enough...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106407 Major depressive disorder Serotonergic Anxiety Neuroplasticity +10

The effect of psychedelic microdosing on animal behavior: A review with recommendations for the field

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews May 9, 2025 Rotem Petranker, Benjamin Tsang, Omer A. Syed 3 citations

Microdosing, the repeated use of psychedelic substances at low doses, is growing in popularity among recreational consumers. While this practice is associated with many benefits to mood, well-being and health, research in this area is in its early stages and predominantly centered on human applications. In this narrative review, we synthesize the findings from studies investigating the effects...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106204 Animal testing Pharmacology

Conscious experiences during non-rapid eye movement sleep parasomnias

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews October 16, 2024 Anna Castelnovo, Francesca Siclari, Sara Spaggiari et al. 12 citations

Disorders of Arousal (DOA) are non-rapid eye movement (NREM) parasomnias traditionally regarded as unconscious states. However, recent research challenges this assumption. This narrative review aims to explore the presence and qualitative features of conscious experiences in patients with DOA during their episodes. The literature indicates a higher recall of conscious experiences during DOA...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105919 Sleep system call Eye movement Audiology

Psychedelics: A review of their effects on recalled aversive memories and fear/anxiety expression in rodents

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews September 20, 2024 Isabel Werle, Leandro J Bertoglio 17 citations

Threatening events and stressful experiences can lead to maladaptive memories and related behaviors. Existing treatments often fail to address these issues linked to anxiety/stress-related disorders effectively. This review identifies dose ranges associated with specific actions across various psychedelics. We examined psilocybin/psilocin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105899 Ayahuasca Ecstasy Ibogaine Ketamine +7

Who are you after psychedelics? A systematic review and a meta-analysis of the magnitude of long-term effects of serotonergic psychedelics on cognition/creativity, emotional processing and personality

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews February 3, 2024 Ivana Solaja, Kate Haldane, Natasha L. Mason et al. 17 citations

This systematic review and a meta-analysis synthesised the results from contemporary, randomized and non-randomized controlled studies to assess lasting (one week minimum) changes on cognition/creativity, emotional processing and personality from serotonergic psychedelics. PubMed, Embase and PsycInfo were searched in July 2022. Risk of bias was assessed using Rob 2.0 and ROBINS-I. Ten studies...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105570 Serotonergic Serotonin Meta-analysis Psycinfo +7

Synthetic surprise as the foundation of the psychedelic experience

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews January 15, 2024 Dietmar Schmitz, Roberto De Filippo 13 citations

Psychedelic agents, such as LSD and psilocybin, induce marked alterations in consciousness via activation of the 5-HT2A receptor (5-HT2ARs). We hypothesize that psychedelics enforce a state of synthetic surprise through the biased activation of the 5-HTRs system. This idea is informed by recent insights into the role of 5-HT in signaling surprise. The effects on consciousness, explained by the...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105538 Psilocybin Predictive coding Surprise Perception +4

Utility of preclinical models in the study of psilocybin – A comprehensive review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews January 13, 2023 Megan Pedicini, Zachary A. Cordner 13 citations

Interest in the therapeutic potential of psilocybin across a broad range of neuropsychiatric disorders is rapidly expanding. Despite promising clinical data and tremendous public enthusiasm, complimentary basic and translational studies - which are critical for advancing our understanding of psilocybin's biological effects and promoting innovation - have been relatively few. As with all work...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105046 Psilocybin Preclinical models Rodent models Translational neuroscience +7

Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: a critical review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews September 1, 2022 Michiel van Elk, David Bryce Yaden 214 citations

This paper provides a critical review of several possible mechanisms at different levels of analysis underlying the effects and therapeutic potential of psychedelics. At the (1) biochemical level, psychedelics primarily affect the 5-HT2A receptor, increase neuroplasticity, offer a critical period for social reward learning, and have anti-inflammatory properties. At the (2) neural level,...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793 Full text Psychedelics Compounds Hallucinogens Entheogens +19

Don’t be afraid, try to meditate- potential effects on neural activity and connectivity of psilocybin-assisted mindfulness-based intervention for social anxiety disorder: A systematic review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews June 6, 2022 Corinna L. Felsch, Kim P. C. Kuypers 23 citations

BACKGROUND: Current first-line treatment for social anxiety disorder (SAD), one of the most prevalent anxiety disorders, is limited in its efficacy. Hence, novel treatment approaches are urgently needed. The current review suggests a combination of meditation-based interventions and the administration of a psychedelic as a future alternative treatment approach. While both separate treatments...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104724 Psilocybin Mindfulness Meditation Psychological intervention +6

The emerging science of microdosing: A systematic review of research on low dose psychedelics (1955–2021) and recommendations for the field

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews May 21, 2022 Vince Polito, Paul Liknaitzky 110 citations

The use of low doses of psychedelic substances (microdosing) is attracting increasing interest. This systematic review summarises all empirical microdosing research to date, including a set of infrequently cited studies that took place prior to prohibition. Specifically, we reviewed 44 studies published between 1955 and 2021, and summarised reported effects across six categories: mood and...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104706 Expectancy theory Mood Cognition Mental health +4

Beating pain with psychedelics: Matter over mind?

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews December 16, 2021 Igor Elman, Amanda C. Pustilnik, David Borsook 26 citations

Basic pain research has shed light on key cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying nociceptive and phenomenological aspects of pain. Despite these advances, we still yearn for the discovery of novel therapeutic strategies to address the unmet needs of about 70 % of chronic neuropathic pain patients whose pain fails to respond to opioids as well as to other conventional analgesic agents....

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.12.005 Psilocybin Ketamine Neuroplasticity Chronic pain +7

The anterior cingulate cortex as a key locus of ketamine’s antidepressant action

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews May 10, 2021 Laith Alexander, Luke A. Jelen, Mitul A. Mehta et al. 79 citations

The subdivisions of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) - including subgenual, perigenual and dorsal zones - are implicated in the etiology, pathogenesis and treatment of major depression. We review an emerging body of evidence which suggests that changes in ACC activity are critically important in mediating the antidepressant effects of ketamine, the prototypical member of an emerging class of...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.05.003 Ketamine Antidepressant Anterior cingulate cortex Cognition +2

Potential safety, benefits, and influence of the placebo effect in microdosing psychedelic drugs: A systematic review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews October 5, 2020 Genís Ona, José Carlos Bouso 59 citations

Microdosing psychedelic drugs-that is, taking sub-behavioral doses of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin-is a growing practice in Western societies. Taken mainly for creative or mood-enhancing purposes, thousands of users are increasingly being exposed to (micro)doses of psychedelic drugs. In this systematic review, we searched the available evidence from human studies, focusing our...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.035 Psilocybin Mood Placebo Pharmacology +2

Long-term effects of psychedelic drugs: A systematic review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews March 16, 2020 Jacob S. Aday, Cayla M. Mitzkovitz, Emily K. Bloesch et al. 260 citations

Research into the basic effects and therapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs has grown considerably in recent years. Yet, pressing questions remain regarding the substances' lasting effects. Although individual studies have begun monitoring sustained changes, no study to-date has synthesized this information. Therefore, this systematic review aims to fill this important gap in the...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.017 Term time Hallucinogen Pharmacology

Neuropharmacological modulation of the aberrant bodily self through psychedelics

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews December 6, 2019 Jasmine T. Ho, Katrin H. Preller, Bigna Lenggenhager 61 citations

As a continual source of sensory input and fundamental component of self-referential processing, the body holds an integral modulatory role in cognition. In a healthy state, predictive coding of multisensory integration promotes the construction of a coherent self. However, several psychiatric disorders comprise aberrant perceptions of the bodily self that are purported to involve discrepancies...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.12.006 Perception Cognition Multisensory integration Predictive coding +5

The cognitive neuroscience of lucid dreaming

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews March 14, 2019 Benjamin Baird, Sérgio Mota-Rolim, Martin Dresler 196 citations

Lucid dreaming refers to the phenomenon of becoming aware of the fact that one is dreaming during ongoing sleep. Despite having been physiologically validated for decades, the neurobiology of lucid dreaming is still incompletely characterized. Here we review the neuroscientific literature on lucid dreaming, including electroencephalographic, neuroimaging, brain lesion, pharmacological and brain...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.03.008 Full text Lucid dream Consciousness Functional neuroimaging Cognitive neuroscience +5

Neuroimaging of chronic MDMA (“ecstasy”) effects: A meta-analysis

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews November 12, 2018 Felix Müller, Raphael Brändle, Matthias E. Liechti et al. 52 citations

In this meta-analysis, we aimed to assess the evidence from neuroimaging studies for chronic alterations in the brains of MDMA users. The databases PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched for studies published from inception to August 24, 2018, without any language restriction. Sixteen independent studies comprising 356 MDMA users and 311 controls were included. Of these, five studies...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.11.004 Ecstasy MDMA Neurochemical Serotonin transporter +7

Serotonergic psychedelics and personality: A systematic review of contemporary research

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews February 13, 2018 José Carlos Bouso, Rafael G. Dos Santos, Miguel Ángel Alcázar‐córcoles et al. 135 citations

Serotonergic psychedelics act as agonists at cortical 5-HT2A receptors and seem to induce personality changes. We conducted a systematic review of studies assessing the effects of these drugs on personality. Papers published from 1985-2016 were included from PubMed, LILACS, and SciELO databases. Three hundred and sixty-nine studies were identified, and 18 were included. Specific personality...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.004 Serotonergic Personality Hallucinogen Openness to experience +2

Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews December 30, 2015 Felix Mueller, Claudia Lenz, Markus Steiner et al. 68 citations

MDMA ("ecstasy") is widely used as a recreational drug, although there has been some debate about its neurotoxic effects in humans. However, most studies have investigated subjects with heavy use patterns, and the effects of transient MDMA use are unclear. In this review, we therefore focus on subjects with moderate use patterns, in order to assess the evidence for harmful effects. We searched...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.010 MDMA Ecstasy Neuroimaging Recreational use +1

The brain's code and its canonical computational motifs. From sensory cortex to the default mode network: A multi-scale model of brain function in health and disease

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews May 5, 2015 Federico Turkheimer, Robert Leech, Paul Expert et al. 64 citations

A variety of anatomical and physiological evidence suggests that the brain performs computations using motifs that are repeated across species, brain areas, and modalities. The computational architecture of cortex, for example, is very similar from one area to another and the types, arrangements, and connections of cortical neurons are highly stereotyped. This supports the idea that each...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.014 Sensory system Stimulus modality Computational model Cognition +2

Distilling the neural correlates of consciousness

Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews December 17, 2011 Jaan Aru, Talis Bachmann, Wolf Singer et al. 612 citations

Solving the problem of consciousness remains one of the biggest challenges in modern science. One key step towards understanding consciousness is to empirically narrow down neural processes associated with the subjective experience of a particular content. To unravel these neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) a common scientific strategy is to compare perceptual conditions in which...

DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.12.003