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No added benefit of VR and neurofeedback-enhanced VR for trait mindfulness in long-term mindfulness training

Yuqin Liu, Weitao Zhang, Yilin Wang, Chen Wu, Sha Zhao, Gang Pan

Computers in Human Behavior Reports October 6, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101376 (opens in new tab)

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Study at a glance

AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Randomized controlled trial Longitudinal Peer reviewed
Sample size 94
Population Meditation-naïve adults
Intervention Screen-based audio-guided mindfulness
Duration 4-week program (eight sessions) with three-month follow-up
Measures Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), Igroup Presence Questionnaire (IPQ)
Topics Meditation
Key findings Trait mindfulness increased comparably across screen-based audio-guided, immersive VR, and VR-with-neurofeedback conditions over eight sessions, so the authors conclude VR and neurofeedback conferred no added behavioral benefit for trait mindfulness. Higher VR presence scores correlated modestly and negatively with mindfulness gains at three-month follow-up. Exploratory EEG differences were reported as descriptive only.

Abstract

Immersive virtual reality (VR) and neurofeedback (NF) are increasingly promoted to enhance mindfulness meditation, yet it remains unknown whether these externally engaging technologies confer lasting benefits for trait mindfulness over sustained practice. This longitudinal randomized controlled trial compared three conditions over a 4-week program (eight sessions) with a three-month follow-up: screen-based audio-guided mindfulness (Non-VR), mindfulness in an immersive VR environment (VR), and mindfulness in VR with real-time EEG neurofeedback (VR-NF). Ninety-four meditation-naïve participants completed the study. Trait mindfulness (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, FFMQ) was assessed at six time points, EEG signal was recorded during all sessions, and subjective presence (Igroup Presence Questionnaire, IPQ) in VR was measured. Linear mixed models and Bayesian analysis revealed comparable FFMQ increases across all three groups, indicating that VR and VR-NF did not confer added behavioral benefit for trait mindfulness development. Higher IPQ presence scores showed a modest negative correlation with long-term FFMQ gains at three-month follow-up. Exploratory EEG analyses described a numerically steeper theta trajectory in the Non-VR group relative to the VR and VR-NF groups, whereas alpha trajectories were comparable across groups. However, because the two EEG systems were not equivalent across conditions and recordings were obtained from frontopolar sites, these patterns are descriptive only and cannot be interpreted as evidence of group differences. Taken together, these findings suggest that VR and VR-NF did not confer added benefit for trait mindfulness in long-term mindfulness training.

Comparable studies

Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.

Study Year Design Participants
Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment 2003 Randomized controlled trial n = 41
Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients 2000 Randomized controlled trial n = 145
Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults 2008 Randomized controlled trial n = 139
Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students 2007 Randomized controlled trial n = 40
Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients 2004 Randomized controlled trial n = 73

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