The Effects of Virtual Reality-Based Mindfulness Exercises on the Perception of Time, Psychological and Physiological States of Young People: A Randomized Crossover Trial
Orsolya Olasz, Sándor Erdős, Klára Horváth
Mindfulness September 1, 2024 DOI: 10.1007/s12671-024-02438-y (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Randomized cross-over trial Preregistered Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 50 |
| Population | Volunteers aged 19–28 years (26 females, 24 males) |
| Duration | 20-minute program; 1-week interval between conditions |
| Measures | STAI-Y, heart rate, body temperature, electrodermal activity, time perception surveys |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | Both VR- and tablet-supported mindfulness reduced anxiety and altered physiological stress markers, with no significant difference between the two devices. Participants perceived the session as shorter than its actual duration only in the VR condition, which the authors suggest may indicate flow state and could support therapeutic adherence. |
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess and compare the efficacy of different electronic devices (VR headsets and tablet devices) supported mindfulness exercises. Contrary to previous studies, we compared the technologies not only regarding psychological but also physiological parameters. Additionally, we assessed time perception as an indicator of flow state, which can increase therapeutic adherence. Fifty volunteers (26 females and 24 males) aged 19–28 years (M = 23, SD = 1.93 years) participated in our cross-over trial. A 20-min mindfulness program (Guided Meditation VR™) was shown on both a VR headset and a tablet device, with a 1-week interval in randomized order. Psychological parameters and time perception were assessed through surveys, and an Empatica E4 wristband collected physiological data (heart rate, body temperature, electrodermal activity). Both VR- and tablet-based mindfulness programs reduced stress, as reflected by improvements in both anxiety (a 7.06-point reduction in STAI-Y score, p < 0.001) and in-session physiological parameters (a 4.82 bpm reduction in HR, p < 0.001; 1.11 °C increase in body temperature, p < 0.001), without significant differences between the two devices. However, participants perceived the intervention as shorter than its actual time only in the VR condition (VR: 26 shorter, 9 longer out of 47, p = 0.006; tablet: 20 shorter, 14 longer out of 47, p = 0.39). While affirming the efficacy of electronic device-supported mindfulness in stress reduction, our study suggests no significant disparity between VR and tablet-supported exercises. Our findings also suggest that participants in the VR session perceived the intervention as shorter than its actual duration. This study is not preregistered.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment | 2003 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 41 |
| Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2000 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 145 |
| Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults | 2008 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 139 |
| Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students | 2007 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 40 |
| Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2004 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 73 |
Citations in the library
Cited by 5
- Virtual Reality as an Interactive Tool for the Implementation of Mindfulness in University Settings: A Systematic Review Multimodal Technologies and Interaction October 11, 2024
- The potential of virtual reality for enhancing the efficacy and acceptability of mindfulness training in non-clinical adults: a pilot randomised controlled trial Virtual Reality September 5, 2025
- Preliminary Study on the Clinical Effectiveness of Short-Term Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy Using Virtual Reality 신경정신의학 2025
- Feasibility of a brief group-based immersive 360° mindfulness program for stress-related outcomes in health sciences students: a 4-week pre-post pilot study. Frontiers in Medicine February 25, 2026
- Efficacy of Virtual Reality-Based Mindfulness Interventions: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. JMIR XR and spatial computing 2026
Cites 9
- Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being JAMA Internal Medicine January 6, 2014
- How Does Mindfulness Training Affect Health? A Mindfulness Stress Buffering Account Current Directions in Psychological Science December 1, 2014
- Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of consciousness: The transient hypofrontality hypothesis Consciousness and Cognition May 19, 2003
- Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction as a Stress Management Intervention for Healthy Individuals Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine July 22, 2014
- Immersive virtual reality or computerised mindfulness meditation for improving mood? Preliminary efficacy from a pilot randomised trial. Frontiers in Psychology 2023
and 4 more in the library