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Altered States of Consciousness During Ceremonial San Pedro Use

Arne Bohn, Michiel H. H. Kiggen, Malin V. Uthaug, Kim van Oorsouw, Johannes G. Ramaekers, Hein T. van Schie

International Journal for the Psychology of Religion December 5, 2022 DOI: 10.1080/10508619.2022.2139502 (opens in new tab)

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Study at a glance

AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Observational study Peer reviewed
Sample size 42
Population Participants who joined ceremonial psychedelic retreats in the Netherlands
Intervention San Pedro
Topics Mysticism Shamanism Altered states of consciousness Mescaline
Keywords Consciousness Magic telescope Psychoanalysis Altered state Trance Anthropology Literature Theology
Citations 10
Key findings San Pedro produces deviations on all 11 subscales of altered consciousness, moderate ego-dissolution, and a complete mystical experience in two-thirds of participants, with spiritual experiences strongly expressed and low levels of disembodiment, anxiety, impaired control, and transcendence of space.

Abstract

San Pedro, a mescaline containing cactus, has been used for thousands of years and is currently popular as a psychedelic substance in ceremonial retreats in Europe. The current research investigates the consciousness altering effects of San Pedro. Forty-two participants who joined ceremonial psychedelic retreats in the Netherlands were investigated with questionnaires probing 11 dimensions of altered states of consciousness (11D-ASC), ego-dissolution, mystical experiences, and challenging experiences. Results tentatively demonstrate the status of San Pedro as a psychedelic, revealing deviations from normal waking consciousness on all 11 subscales of the 11D-ASC, moderate scores of ego-dissolution, and a complete mystical experience in two thirds of the participants. Furthermore, a consciousness profile of San Pedro was constructed, which revealed that spiritual experiences are strongly expressed in ceremonial San Pedro use. Furthermore, the San Pedro experience is characterized by low levels of disembodiment, anxiety, impaired control and cognition, transcendence of space, and relatively higher levels of physical distress and grief in case of (incidental) challenging experiences. Finally, graph network analysis indicated two separate networks of positive and negative altered states of consciousness. Possible interpretations of these findings are discussed in relation to the ceremonial setting, sympathomimetic effects of San Pedro?s alkaloids and variations in affective valence.

Comparable studies

Other observational and cohort studies on mescaline, most cited first.

Study Year Design Participants
Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: A population study Randomly selected United States adults 2015 Observational cohort n = 135,095
Long-lasting subjective effects of LSD in normal subjects Healthy participants 2017 Observational cohort n = 16
Psychological and cognitive effects of long-term peyote use among Native Americans. Navajo Native Americans aged 18-45 2005 Observational cohort n = 176
Mescaline-induced psychopathological, neuropsychological, and neurometabolic effects in normal subjects: experimental psychosis as a tool for psychiatric research. Normal men who were volunteers 1992 Observational cohort n = 12
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (STP): A New Hallucinogenic Drug Normal control volunteers 1967 Observational study

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Mysticism Shamanism Altered states of consciousness Mescaline Anxiety Ego dissolution Mystical experience Philosophy of mind