The differences between immersive audio and video scenarios to mediate digital mindfulness interventions: a RCT study
Chiara Milasi, Morena De Francesco, Marina Barberio, Alfredo Albertini, Nicola Tallarico, Piergiovanna Menniti, Giuseppe Fratto, Federico Rocca, Marianna Contrada, Francesca Gallivanone, Andrea Gaggioli, Luca Bernardelli, Cristina Segura‐Garcìa, Domenico Bosco, Antonio Cerasa
Research Square April 2, 2026 preprint DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9039574/v1 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Randomized controlled trial |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 60 |
| Population | Healthy, mindfulness-naïve adults |
| Duration | Four weekly 10-minute sessions over one month; assessments at baseline and post-intervention |
| Measures | WHO-5, MHC-SF, SPANE, STAI, BDI-II, PSS-10, MAAS |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | Both VR-based and audio-based mindfulness interventions significantly reduced anxiety and depressive symptoms over one month. Compared with audio-MBI, VR-MBI produced significantly greater improvements in positive affect (25.6% increase) and emotional well-being (14.4% increase), with no significant between-group differences in mindfulness awareness or perceived stress. |
Abstract
Abstract
Objective: Digital mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have gained increasing attention due to their scalability and accessibility. Among digital formats, immersive virtual reality (VR) systems appear particularly promising, yet direct comparisons with traditional audio-guided mindfulness remain scarce. This randomized controlled trial (RCT) aimed to directly compare the effectiveness of immersive VR-based mindfulness interventions (VR-MBI) versus immersive audio-based mindfulness interventions (audio-MBI), in order to better disentangle the role of immersive visual stimulation.
Methods: Sixty healthy participants were randomly assigned to either a VR-MBI group or an audio-MBI control group. Both groups completed four weekly 10-minute mindfulness sessions over one month, delivered in controlled laboratory conditions. Psychological outcomes were assessed at baseline and post-intervention using validated self-report measures of well-being (WHO-5, MHC-SF), positive and negative affect (SPANE), anxiety (STAI), depression (BDI-II), perceived stress (PSS-10), and mindfulness awareness (MAAS). Between-group differences were examined using change scores (post–pre), with non-parametric analyses applied where appropriate.
Results: Both VR-MBI and audio-MBI groups showed significant reductions in anxiety and depressive symptoms over time. However, between-group comparisons revealed significantly greater improvements in positive affect (SPANE) and emotional well-being (MHC-SF) in the VR-MBI group compared to the audio-MBI group. Specifically, VR-MBI induced a 25.6% increase in positive emotions and a 14.4% increase in well-being relative to audio-MBI. No significant between-group differences were observed for mindfulness awareness or perceived stress.
Conclusions: These findings provide direct evidence that immersive VR-based mindfulness interventions offer specific advantages over traditional audio-guided mindfulness in enhancing positive emotions and well-being in mindfulness-naïve individuals.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment | 2003 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 41 |
| Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2000 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 145 |
| Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults | 2008 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 139 |
| Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students | 2007 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 40 |
| Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2004 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 73 |
Citations in the library
Cites 14
- The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003
- Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 2004
- Efficacy of 8- and 4-Session Mindfulness-Based Interventions in a Non-clinical Population: A Controlled Study Frontiers in Psychology August 8, 2017
- Group, One-on-One, or Internet? Preferences for Mindfulness Meditation Delivery Format and their Predictors Open Medicine Journal November 28, 2014
- Enhancing Mindfulness Effects on Well-Being Using Immersive Virtual Reality in Non-Clinical Populations: Where Are We Going? Mindfulness November 10, 2025
and 9 more in the library