Self-Directed Versus Pre-Determined Mindfulness Training: A Longitudinal Study on Perceived Stress, Well-Being, and Mindfulness
Jana Theisejans, Annika Brandtner, Magnus Liebherr
Journal of Cognitive Enhancement March 28, 2026 DOI: 10.1007/s41465-026-00356-6 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Randomized controlled trial Longitudinal Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 107 |
| Population | Participants in an online study |
| Intervention | tips |
| Duration | 4-week intervention |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Keywords | Mental health Repeated measures design Longitudinal study Analysis of variance Facet psychology Randomized controlled trial Clinical psychology Stress linguistics Psychotherapist |
| Key findings | Both the self-directed mindfulness program and the online freely available program improved mindfulness and perceived stress over time, with no significant differences between groups. |
Abstract
Abstract Traditional mindfulness programs positively impact physical and mental health but often fail to meet the needs of our fast-paced society, whether offered online or in person. Mobile applications enable independent practice but provide limited support. A self-directed approach may enhance self-efficacy and improve outcomes. This study compares a self-directed four-week mindfulness training with specific background information on mindfulness training effects, tips to integrating mindfulness in everyday life, and guidance for training (experimental group; EG) to an online freely available mindfulness program (active control group; ACG) in terms of perceived stress, well-being, and mindfulness. In an online study, participants were pseudo-randomly assigned to either the EG or the ACG and completed the Perceived Stress Scale, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale, and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire short form at three measurement times (T0, T1, T2). 107 participants completed baseline (T0), 93 participants finished T1, and 83 participants completed the whole study (T2). Using an imputed dataset ( N = 107 at T0, T1, and T2), we conducted mixed ANOVAs and found significant main effects of time on mindfulness and perceived stress, but not on well-being. Post-hoc analysis revealed significant improvements in both EG and ACG in perceived stress and mindfulness from T0 to T1 and T2. No between-group differences and no significant training x time interaction were found. Given the absence of differences between groups, these findings provide initial evidence that this novel self-directed mindfulness program may offer a flexible yet sufficiently supportive option for users.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment | 2003 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 41 |
| Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2000 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 145 |
| Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults | 2008 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 139 |
| Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students | 2007 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 40 |
| Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2004 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 73 |
Citations in the library
Cites 18
- Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being JAMA Internal Medicine January 6, 2014
- Mindfulness Interventions Annual Review of Psychology September 30, 2016
- A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction Annals of Behavioral Medicine February 1, 2007
- The moderation of Mindfulness‐based stress reduction effects by trait mindfulness: Results from a randomized controlled trial Journal of Clinical Psychology December 22, 2010
- The mindfulness‐based cognitive therapy adherence scale: inter‐rater reliability, adherence to protocol and treatment distinctiveness Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy March 1, 2002
and 13 more in the library