Gender differences in nightmare frequency: a meta-analysis.
Michael Schredl, Iris Reinhard
Sleep Medicine Reviews April 1, 2011 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.06.002 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Meta-analysis Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Population | Healthy persons across age groups (children, adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, older persons) |
| Topics | Dreaming |
| Key findings | Women report nightmares more often than men, but this gender difference is absent in children and older persons and narrows with increasing age starting from adolescence. |
Abstract
Many studies have reported gender differences in nightmare frequency. In order to study this difference systematically, data from 111 independent studies have been included in the meta-analysis reported here. Overall, estimated effect sizes regarding the gender difference in nightmare frequency differed significantly from zero in three age groups of healthy persons (adolescents, young adults, and middle-aged adults), whereas for children and older persons no substantial gender difference in nightmare frequency could be demonstrated. There are several candidate variables like dream recall frequency, depression, childhood trauma, and insomnia which might explain this gender difference because these variables are related to nightmare frequency and show stable gender differences themselves. Systematic research studying the effect of these variables on the gender difference in nightmare frequency, though, is still lacking. In the present study it was found that women tend to report nightmares more often than men but this gender difference was not found in children and older persons. Starting with adolescence, the gender difference narrowed with increasing age. In addition, studies with binary coded items showed a markedly smaller effect size for the gender difference in nightmare frequency compared to the studies using multiple categories in a rating scale. How nightmares were defined did not affect the gender difference. In the analyses of all studies and also in the analysis for the children alone the data source (children vs. parents) turned out to be the most influential variable on the gender difference (reporting, age). Other results are also presented. Investigating factors explaining the gender difference in nightmare frequency might be helpful in deepening the understanding regarding nightmare etiology and possibly gender differences in other mental disorders like depression or posttraumatic stress disorder.
Comparable studies
Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses on dreaming, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dreaming as mind wandering: evidence from functional neuroimaging and first-person content reports. | 2013 | Systematic review with meta-analytic comparison | |
| Lucid dreaming incidence: A quality effects meta-analysis of 50 years of research | 2016 | Meta-analysis | |
| The effectiveness of lucid dreaming therapy in patients with nightmares: A systematic review. Adults with chronic and recurring nightmares | 2023 | Systematic review | |
| The relationships between insomnia, nightmares, and dreams: A systematic review Individuals without a concomitant psychopathology, including those with insomnia or... | 2024 | Systematic review | |
| Psychosocial treatments for nightmares in adults and children: a systematic review | 2023 | Systematic review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 78
- The Phenomenology of Lucid Dreaming: An Online Survey The American Journal of Psychology April 21, 2014
- What about dreams? State of the art and open questions Journal of Sleep Research April 13, 2022
- Nightmare frequency in a representative German sample University Library Heidelberg 2013
- Emotion dysregulation mediates the relationship between nightmares and psychotic experiences: results from a student population Schizophrenia June 1, 2020
- Nightmares: Knowledge and attitudes in health care providers and nightmare sufferers Journal of Public Health and Epidemiology July 31, 2014
and 73 more in the library
Cites 12
- Nightmare Prevalence, Nightmare Distress, and Self-Reported Psychological Disturbance Sleep 2002
- Questionnaires and diaries as research instruments in dream research: Methodological issues. Dreaming March 1, 2002
- Measuring nightmare and bad dream frequency: impact of retrospective and prospective instruments Journal of Sleep Research May 13, 2008
- Dream Recall, Nightmare Frequency, and Nocturnal Panic Attacks in Patients with Panic Disorder The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease August 1, 2001
- Nightmare frequency in patients with primary insomnia heiDOK (Heidelberg University) 2009
and 7 more in the library