Diverging results with converging operations: Implications for the study of consciousness and cognition.
Consciousness and Cognition May 1, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2026.104049 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Theoretical or philosophical paper Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Topics | Altered states of consciousness Philosophy of mind |
| Keywords | Absorption Converging operations Impulsivity Self-report |
| Key points | Argues that self-report of subjective experience should be the defining measure for constructs such as impulsivity and altered states of consciousness, rather than behavioral or cognitive measures. |
Abstract
Converging operations allow one to home in on a construct, be this an altered state of consciousness (ASC), or trait and/or state impulsivity. Unfortunately (or, perhaps fortunately), measures that should provide converging operations for such a construct sometimes present with diverging results. Three cases are considered here: trait impulsivity, which should be positively correlated with state or cognitive impulsivity, but which can also be not correlated; the subjective experience of state absorption, which should be positively correlated with trait absorption, but sometimes is not; and trait mindfulness, which should be negatively correlated with trait impulsivity, but this may be undermined by the semantic ambiguity of a questionnaire item. It is suggested that the defining characteristic of the construct of impulsivity should be the self-report regarding trait impulsivity. Likewise, the defining characteristic of the construct of an ASC should be the report regarding subjective experience. In both cases, predominant weight is placed on the evidence supplied by one's subjective experience and appraisal. Three areas for future research and theoretical consideration are suggested: (1) Given that converging measures are not of equal standing, one should consider which measure is a defining one of the construct under investigation, and which measures are critical for delimiting its extent; (2) when a mismatch appears between measures, it is important to clarify what this means for the construct; and (3) one should consider whether the demand characteristics of a study have clouded the interpretation of the construct under investigation.
Comparable studies
Other theoretical and historical papers on altered states of consciousness, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Altered States of Consciousness | 1966 | Theoretical or philosophical paper | |
| Functional neuroanatomy of altered states of consciousness: The transient hypofrontality hypothesis | 2003 | Theoretical or philosophical paper | |
| The Psychedelic Mystical Experience in the Human Encounter with Death | 1969 | Theoretical or philosophical paper | |
| A neurophenomenological approach to non-ordinary states of consciousness: hypnosis, meditation, and psychedelics | 2022 | Theoretical or philosophical paper | |
| Hypnotic phenomena and altered states of consciousness: a multilevel framework of description and explanation | 2003 | Theoretical or philosophical paper |
Citations in the library
Cites 21
- Altered States of Consciousness Archives of General Psychiatry September 1, 1966
- Prediction of Psilocybin Response in Healthy Volunteers PLoS One February 17, 2012
- Mindfulness-induced selflessness: a MEG neurophenomenological study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2013
- Absorption and spiritual experience: A review of evidence and potential mechanisms. Consciousness and Cognition August 1, 2019
- Psychedelic-induced mystical experiences: An interdisciplinary discussion and critique Frontiers in Psychiatry April 5, 2023
and 16 more in the library