Effects of mindfulness breathing meditation on stress and cognitive functions: a heart rate variability and eye-tracking study
Ling Yut Hooi, Po Ling Chen, Kok Wei Tan, Marieke De Vries, Hoo Keat Wong
Scientific Reports October 24, 2025 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-23727-z (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Review Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Topics | Meditation |
| Citations | 9 |
| Key findings | The effects of combining five types of mindfulness breathing meditation on perceived stress and cognitive functions have yet to be studied. |
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increase in research on the effect of mindfulness meditation-based intervention on mental health 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . Meditation is an umbrella term that involves a variety of mental practices 8 , 9 . Meditation can be used to define the state of consciousness or as the techniques used in mental training 10 , 11 , 12 . Meditation is easy to learn and can be learned by most people regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, educational level, and medical or psychological conditions 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . Mindfulness can be defined as a state of being conscious and aware of the present moment 19 . It also implies attention, awareness, and remembering to bring back our attention to the present in a receptive way 20 . From a psychological point of view, mindfulness is a cognitive process that brings awareness of one’s inner state, surroundings, and openness to new experiences or information 21 , 22 . However, other researchers stated that words could not easily describe mindfulness because it is an abstruse, subtle, and non-verbal experience 23 . The word “Pranayama” has the meaning of breath regulation practice, with “prana” meaning breath or vital energy and “yama” meaning control 24 , 25 . Mindfulness breathing meditation can be more accessible to beginners as it provides a clear and easily accessible object of attention, i.e., breath, that may be easier for some individuals to establish a meditation practice with a single and straightforward focus. Previous studies have reported the beneficial effects of different types of mindfulness breathing meditation, i.e., 4-4-4-4 breathing meditation, Kapalabhati Pranayama (skull shining breath), Bhastrika Pranayama (bellows breath), Nadishodhan Pranayama (alternate nostril breath), and Bhramari Pranayama (bee breath) on promoting mental health and enhancing cognitive functions 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 . Although a recent study examined the effects of combining meditation techniques, i.e., Mahapran dhvani (buzzing bee sound meditation) and leśyā dhyāna (colour meditation) on attention 30 ; the effects of combining these five types of mindfulness breathing meditation on perceived stress level and cognitive functions have yet to be studied. A combination of these mindfulness breathing meditation techniques could potentially offer a more comprehensive set of benefits compared to just single technique (see the outline of past studies’ mindfulness meditation intervention, which includes a variety of meditation techniques 31 , 32 . This approach would also enhance the intervention appeal, increase participant engagement, and reduce the risk of boredom, particularly among novice participants. The similarities and differences between the five mindfulness breathing meditation techniques are detailed in Table 1 .
Comparable studies
Other narrative reviews on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical populations | 2003 | Review | |
| Mindfulness: Theoretical Foundations and Evidence for its Salutary Effects | 2007 | Review | |
| Mindfulness Interventions | 2016 | Review | |
| Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation | 2017 | Review | |
| Mindfulness and acceptance: expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition | 2005 | Review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 5
- Evaluation of Immediate Changes in Reaction Time Following Bhramari Pranayama Among Young Adults: A Prospective Study Cureus April 23, 2026
- Autonomic and psychophysiological effects of a 13-week mindfulness-based intervention in university students Frontiers in Psychology February 4, 2026
- Meditation in Motion: Sport Type and Meditation Level Shape Gut Microbiota Profiles in Aikido and Tai Chi Practitioners Microorganisms January 24, 2026
- Mindfulness training modulates EEG oscillations and improves shooting accuracy in competitive stress. Frontiers in Psychology May 18, 2026
- Evaluation of Mindful Breathing Method Using Tablet Devices Through Chaos Analysis and Frequency Analysis: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial. Biomedical engineering and computational biology 2026
Cites 57
- Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation Perspectives on Psychological Science October 10, 2017
- A randomized controlled trial of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination, and distraction Annals of Behavioral Medicine February 1, 2007
- Home practice in Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of participants' mindfulness practice and its association with outcomes Behaviour Research and Therapy May 10, 2017
- Neural mechanisms of attentional control in mindfulness meditation Frontiers in Neuroscience 2013
- The effect of mindfulness meditation on sleep quality: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences December 21, 2018
and 52 more in the library