A Comparative Review of the Neuro-Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogen-Induced Altered States of Consciousness: The Uniqueness of Some Hallucinogens
NeuroQuantology June 1, 2012 DOI: 10.14704/nq.2012.10.2.528 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Review Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Topics | Mescaline Psilocybin Altered states of consciousness |
| Keywords | Hallucinogen Euphoriant Perception Consciousness Cognitive psychology Psychoanalysis |
| Citations | 17 |
| Key findings | The psychological effects of hallucinogens are diverse and not fully explained by known receptor mechanisms, depending also on set and setting. |
Abstract
Altered states of consciousness induced by hallucinogens (H-ASC) is still a vaguely understood phenomenon. Taken the diverse psychological effects they exert, the main mechanism of action of hallucinogens; LSD, ibogaine, THC, PCP, MDMA, methamphetamine, mescaline, psilocybin and DMT, of which psychological effects are discussed in the article, are not properly understood and explained by the modern methods of neuroscience due to the lack of vigorous research. The involvement of some receptors, such as, 5-HT2 (and probably other 5-HT receptors), glutamate and dopamine receptors, adrenergic and cannabinoid receptors, is one of the mechanisms, however it is not easy to explain such incongruent psychological effects by only receptor and neurotransmitter systems alone, since H-ASCs have, sometimes, their own unity and gestalt, unfolding the subconscious, in the “voyages” they induce, although the perception may, or may not, be distorted depending on the person, and “set and setting”. They induce visual, tactile and auditory hallucinations; synesthesia; perception of fractals, geometrical and kaleidoscopic images with vivid colors; perception of two dimensional pictures as three dimensional, animated and moving; distortions and alterations in the body perception; alterations in the perceptions of temporal-spatial continuum and time; changes in the perception of the ego and the self; feelings of unification with nature and universe, peak experiences –mimicking satori or nirvana-, ecstasy, rapture, extreme euphoria, excitement and happiness, oceanic bliss, self-fulfillment, referred as “good trip”, as well as, dysphoria, anxiety, mania, delirium, psychosis, acute schizophrenia, collapse of the self, known as “bad trip”; depending upon the mood, affection and psychology of the person, and “set and setting”. Mysticomimetic effects of H-ASCs, imitate the consciousness states of ancient mystics, probably, by means of activating prefrontal cortex, limbic system and the right temporal lobe. A hypothetical “holographic brain theory” may give some extra insights about the explanation of some of the effects of H-ASCs. It should be taken into account that H-ASCs, can be accepted as a good tool to investigate the nature of consciousness, brain and the human psyche, as well as some of the H-ASCs are good models of psychosis, too. More detailed scientific research should be performed to understand the basic and real mechanisms of H-ASCs, to comprehend and unravel the mystery of human mind and consciousness, since scientific medical research on hallucinogens has been legalized since 1992. NeuroQuantology | June 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 2 | Page 316-340
Comparable studies
Other narrative reviews on altered states of consciousness, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Subjective Effects of Psychedelics Are Necessary for Their Enduring Therapeutic Effects. | 2020 | Review | |
| Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness. | 2005 | Review | |
| Intrinsic Brain Activity in Altered States of Consciousness | 2008 | Review | |
| Dynamic functional connectivity and brain metastability during altered states of consciousness | 2017 | Review | |
| A default mode of brain function in altered states of consciousness. | 2013 | Review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 12
- Cannabis-induced altered states of consciousness are associated with specific dynamic brain connectivity states Journal of Psychopharmacology June 3, 2019
- Classification schemes of altered states of consciousness. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews August 1, 2025
- Does the Nervous System Have an Intrinsic Archaic Language? Entoptic Images and Phosphenes NeuroQuantology June 2, 2014
- Sacred Plants and Their Miraculous or Healing Properties Qeios January 17, 2024
- Ibogaine as a Treatment For Alcohol Use Disorder: a Preclinical Investigation October 1, 2023
and 7 more in the library
Cites 26
- Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance Psychopharmacology July 7, 2006
- Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin Synapse 2000
- The safety and efficacy of {+/-}3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. Journal of Psychopharmacology July 19, 2010
- The Pharmacology of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide: A Review CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics November 11, 2008
- Acute psychological and physiological effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose?effect study Psychopharmacology March 1, 2004
and 21 more in the library