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Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): the role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin

Udo Benzenhöfer, Torsten Passie

Addiction August 1, 2010 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02948.x (opens in new tab)

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Study at a glance

AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Historical analysis Peer reviewed
Population Historical publications and laboratory notebook of Alexander T. Shulgin
Topics MDMA
Keywords MDMA History Alexander shulgin MDMA Therapy
Citations 69
Key points Shulgin was not the first to synthesize MDMA, but he played an important role in its history by introducing it to psychotherapist Leo Zeff in 1977 and co-publishing the first paper on its pharmacological action in humans in 1978.

Abstract

ABSTRACTAims Alexander T. Shulgin is widely thought of as the ‘father’ of +/−3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). This paper re‐assesses his role in the modern history of this drug.Methods We analysed systematically Shulgin's original publications on MDMA, his publications on the history of MDMA and his laboratory notebook.Results According to Shulgin's book PIHKAL (1991), he synthesized MDMA in 1965, but did not try it. In the 1960s Shulgin also synthesized MDMA‐related compounds such as 3,4‐methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3‐methoxy‐4,5‐methylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA) and 3,4‐methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDE), but this had no impact on his rediscovery of MDMA. In the mid‐1970s Shulgin learned of a ‘special effect’ caused by MDMA, whereupon he re‐synthesized it and tried it himself in September 1976, as confirmed by his laboratory notebook. In 1977 he gave MDMA to Leo Zeff PhD, who used it as an adjunct to psychotherapy and introduced it to other psychotherapists.Conclusion Shulgin was not the first to synthesize MDMA, but he played an important role in its history. It seems plausible that he was so impressed by its effects that he introduced it to psychotherapist Zeff in 1977. This, and the fact that in 1978 he published with David Nichols the first paper on the pharmacological action of MDMA in humans, explains why Shulgin is sometimes (erroneously) called the ‘father’ of MDMA.

Comparable studies

Other theoretical and historical papers on MDMA, most cited first.

Study Year Design Participants
Differences Between the Mechanism of Action of MDMA, MBDB, and the Classic Hallucinogens. Identification of a New Therapeutic Class: Entactogens 1986 Theoretical or philosophical paper
The Background and Chemistry of MDMA 1986 Historical analysis
The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents* Original documents in Merck's historical archive in Darmstadt, Germany, years 1900–1960 2006 Historical analysis
Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA 2019 Theoretical or philosophical paper
How could MDMA (ecstasy) help anxiety disorders? A neurobiological rationale 2009 Theoretical or philosophical paper

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