Virtual Reality Mindfulness-Based Intervention for School Children: Does Neuroticism or Initial Mindfulness Moderate the Effects?
Amaiur Olarza, Ivan Nyklíček, Rosa Mindeguia, Goretti Soroa, Aitor Aritzeta
Mindfulness December 28, 2025 DOI: 10.1007/s12671-025-02742-1 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Pre-post intervention study Preregistered Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 432 |
| Population | Children aged 9-12 years |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Keywords | Neuroticism Psychological intervention Moderation Intervention counseling Young adult Depressive symptoms Life satisfaction Clinical psychology Depression economics |
| Key points | Neuroticism did not significantly moderate depressive symptom changes after controlling for baseline levels, though higher neuroticism was associated with less improvement in pleasure and reduced mindfulness gains. Baseline mindfulness did not predict depression changes, but lower initial mindfulness predicted greater improvement. Gender and age had no moderating effects. |
Abstract
Abstract Objective Child and adolescent depression is an increasing concern, significantly impacting their emotional, academic, and social well-being. While mindfulness-based interventions have shown effectiveness in reducing depressive symptoms, emerging technologies like virtual reality offer more engaging approaches. This study aimed to investigate the moderating effects of a virtual mindfulness programme ("Virtual EMO-Mind") in children, focusing on how neuroticism, pre-existing mindfulness skills, and demographic factors influence changes in depressive symptoms and mindfulness skills.
Method: Participants were 432 students aged between 9 and 12 years ( M age = 10.63; SD age = 0.71; 53.6% girls and 46.4% boys). Paired-sample t -tests were conducted to assess changes in depression and mindfulness before and after the intervention. Additionally, ANCOVA and linear regression were employed to analyse the moderating effects of neuroticism, baseline mindfulness, and demographic factors on these changes.
Results: The results showed that neuroticism significantly moderated negative dimensions of depression, but this effect was no longer significant after controlling for initial symptom levels. Higher neuroticism was associated with less improvement in Pleasure and reduced gains in mindfulness skills. Baseline mindfulness levels did not predict changes in depression, although participants with lower initial mindfulness skills experienced greater improvements. Gender and age did not moderate outcomes.
Conclusions: This study found no significant moderating effect of neuroticism on depressive symptoms in children, contrary to findings in adult populations. Future studies should consider longer interventions, tailored assessments for children, and a broader age range to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the moderating effects of neuroticism and other factors in mindfulness-based interventions. Preregistration This study is not preregistered.
Comparable studies
Other non-randomized and open-label trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in Relation to Quality of Life, Mood, Symptoms of Stress, and Immune Parameters in Breast and Prostate Cancer Outpatients Early-stage breast and prostate cancer patients | 2003 | Pre-post intervention study | n = 59 |
| Exploring self‐compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness‐based stress reduction (MBSR) Community sample | 2010 | Pre-post intervention study | |
| Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Lowers Psychological Distress In Medical Students Second-year medical students | 2003 | Prospective nonrandomized cohort-controlled study | n = 302 |
| Intensive meditation training, immune cell telomerase activity, and psychological mediators. Retreat participants and matched controls | 2011 | Controlled trial with wait-list control group | n = 60 |
| The Effectiveness of Mindfulness Training for Children with ADHD and Mindful Parenting for their Parents Children aged 8-12 with ADHD and their parents | 2011 | Within-group waitlist controlled trial | n = 22 |
Citations in the library
Cites 18
- Assessment of Mindfulness by Self-Report Assessment September 1, 2004
- Research Review: The effects of mindfulness‐based interventions on cognition and mental health in children and adolescents – a meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry October 22, 2018
- The moderation of Mindfulness‐based stress reduction effects by trait mindfulness: Results from a randomized controlled trial Journal of Clinical Psychology December 22, 2010
- Individual participant data systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials assessing adult mindfulness-based programmes for mental health promotion in non-clinical settings. Nature Mental Health July 10, 2023
- `Virtual EMO-Mind´ for Primary School Students: Effects on Mindfulness Skills, Attention, Impulsiveness, and Emotional Stability Research Square July 8, 2024
and 13 more in the library