Understanding the role of rhythm: Effects of VR-based breathing meditation on anxiety, stress, and mindfulness
Peng Tan, Yanpin Song, Xinyu Zhang, Jiaming Chen, Jianyu Lu, Yi Ji, Lihua Zheng, Xiangshi Ren, Hongtao Zhang
Computers in Human Behavior Reports June 16, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101153 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Mixed-design experiment Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 40 |
| Population | College students |
| Interventions | 4-7-8 G 5-0-5 G guided adaptive) |
| Topics | Meditation Anxiety |
| Keywords | Breathing Mindfulness meditation Depression economics Psychotherapist |
| Key findings | The 5-0-5 A rhythm consistently enhanced mindfulness and reduced both stress and anxiety, while adaptive interaction mode produced the largest improvements in mindfulness and the greatest reductions in stress and anxiety. |
Abstract
Breathing meditation (BM), particularly when delivered via virtual reality (VR), has shown promise in reducing anxiety and stress and enhancing mindfulness. Recent evidence suggests that embedding rhythmic elements, such as temporally structured inhalation, exhalation, and breath-holding, may further regulate BM’s effectiveness. However, the specific role of rhythm in VR-based breathing meditation (VRBM) remains underexplored. To address this gap, we developed BreathMe, a VRBM system featuring four distinct rhythm (4-2-4 G , 4-7-8 G , 5-0-5 G , 5-0-5 A ) of breathing that varied in temporal structure and interaction mode (natural, guided, and adaptive). A mixed-design experiment was conducted with 40 college students to examine the differential effects (mindfulness, perceived stress, and anxiety) of these modes on psychological outcomes and physiological markers. Results indicated that the 5-0-5 A rhythm consistently enhanced mindfulness and reduced both stress and anxiety; whereas 4-2-4 G produced moderate reduction both stress and anxiety, and the 5-0-5 G and 4-7-8 G mainly impacted stress reduction. Regarding interaction modes, adaptive breathing elicited the largest increases in mindfulness and the greatest reductions in stress and anxiety, guided breathing showed moderate benefits, and natural breathing yielded the least pronounced effects. These findings demonstrate that both breathing rhythm and interaction mode independently and interactively shape psychological and physiological responses in VRBM, providing empirical guidance for designing personalized and effective immersive meditation interventions.
Comparable studies
Other experimental studies on anxiety, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| A PILOT STUDY OF GROUP MINDFULNESS-BASED COGNITIVE THERAPY (MBCT) FOR COMBAT VETERANS WITH POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD) Veterans with chronic combat posttraumatic stress disorder seeking treatment at a VA... | 2013 | Quasi-experimental with treatment-as-usual comparison group | n = 37 |
| Being present in the face of existential threat: The role of trait mindfulness in reducing defensive responses to mortality salience. | 2010 | Experimental study | |
| Neural correlates of mindfulness meditation-related anxiety relief Healthy adults with no prior meditation experience | 2013 | Within-subjects experimental study | n = 15 |
| Intensive mindfulness training-related changes in cognitive and emotional experience Community adults | 2009 | Quasi-experimental and longitudinal | n = 69 |
| Prospective examination of synthetic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine inhalation: effects on salivary IL-6, cortisol levels, affect, and non-judgment Volunteers | 2019 | Within-subjects experimental study | n = 11 |
Citations in the library
Cites 21
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- Breath of Life: The Respiratory Vagal Stimulation Model of Contemplative Activity Frontiers in Human Neuroscience October 9, 2018
- Yoga Breathing, Meditation, and Longevity Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences August 1, 2009
- Zen Meditation: An Integration of Current Evidence The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine May 1, 2009
- Designing, Prototyping and Evaluating Digital Mindfulness Applications: A Case Study of Mindful Breathing for Stress Reduction Journal of Medical Internet Research June 14, 2017
and 16 more in the library