Effect of Traditional Meditation (Spiritual Techniques) on Metacognitive Abilities and Mindfulness in University Students: A Three-armed Controlled Trial
Narottam Kumar, Udham Singh
Cognition Brain Behavior An Interdisciplinary Journal March 31, 2026 DOI: 10.24193/cbb.2026.30.05 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Randomized controlled trial Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 102 |
| Population | University students aged 19-26 |
| Interventions | Vipassana meditation Pranav meditation |
| Duration | 5-month intervention |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Keywords | Metacognition Mindfulness meditation Test biology Clinical psychology Randomized controlled trial Significant difference Scale ratio |
| Key findings | Both vipassana meditation and pranav meditation significantly improved metacognitive abilities and mindfulness compared to a control group. |
Abstract
Disturbance in mindfulness state and disability related to self-regulated cognitive abilities (metacognition) generally occur among higher education students. Many types of yoga and meditation techniques have been developed which show improvement in one’s mindfulness, cognition, as well as metacognition. We carried out a three-armed empirical study to capture the effect of two spiritual techniques-vipassana meditation (VM) and pranav meditation (PM) on metacognitive abilities and mindfulness in university youths. A total of 140 students (aged 19-26 years) were screened, out of which 102 students met predetermined eligibility criteria and were randomly assigned into three groups: VM, PM, and control (CT). Metacognition and mindfulness state were assessed at baseline and after five months using Gurukula Kangri Metacognition Awareness Scale (Narottam Kumar and Udham Singh) and Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale (Kirk Warren Brown and Richad Ryan) respectively. The findings of within-subject effects showed significant improvements in metacognitive abilities and mindfulness from pretest to posttest in both VM and PM group compared to CT group. Between-subject effects showed there were significant differences for post-test score of metacognition and mindfulness across three groups. Post-hoc Bonferroni-corrected test showed significant differences in the post mean score of dependent variables were found to be statistically significant between VM & PM, between VM & CT, and PM & CT. These findings suggest that VM and PM techniques can be beneficial for improving metacognitive abilities and mindfulness in students of higher education institutions.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Alterations in Brain and Immune Function Produced by Mindfulness Meditation Healthy employees in a work environment | 2003 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 41 |
| Prevention of relapse/recurrence in major depression by mindfulness-based cognitive therapy. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2000 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 145 |
| Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Working adults | 2008 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 139 |
| Short-term meditation training improves attention and self-regulation Undergraduate Chinese students | 2007 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 40 |
| Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Depression: Replication and Exploration of Differential Relapse Prevention Effects. Recovered recurrently depressed patients | 2004 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 73 |
Citations in the library
Cites 9
- The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003
- How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective Perspectives on Psychological Science October 14, 2011
- Om chanting modulates the processing of negative stimuli: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence Frontiers in Psychology October 13, 2022
- Effectiveness of 12-week Om chanting on reaction time and spatial and verbal memory Asian Journal of Medical Sciences October 1, 2022
- On the Neurobiology of Meditation: Comparison of Three Organizing Strategies to Investigate Brain Patterns during Meditation Practice Medicina December 18, 2020
and 4 more in the library