Methylenedioxymethamphetamine is a connectogen with empathogenic, entactogenic, and still further connective properties: It is time to reconcile “the great entactogen—empathogen debate”
Kurt Stocker, Matthias E. Liechti
Journal of Psychopharmacology July 28, 2024 DOI: 10.1177/02698811241265352 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Review Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Topics | MDMA |
| Keywords | Introspection Openness to experience Feeling Class philosophy Cognitive psychology |
| Citations | 15 |
| Key findings | The authors propose that MDMA and MDMA-like substances be termed connectogens, as their empathogenic and entactogenic effects stem from a holistic principle of intense connection. |
Abstract
Science on methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and MDMA-like substances is faced with the unique situation that this class of psychoactive agents is referred to with two basic names for its effects on the mind: empathogens and entactogens. Empathogen usually refers to the prosocial, empathetic, and openness properties of MDMA, while entactogen usually refers to the introspective and self-awareness properties of this substance. We review the origin and usage of the two terms, and also review recent findings that support that MDMA is an empathogen and an entactogen. Mostly no specified reasons can be detected whether research groups employ the term “entactogenic,” “empathogenic,” both, or neither, in their publications. A case is made that the use of two basic names for the effects on the mind for the same class of psychoactive substances is not warranted because a holistic principle underlies empathogenic and entactogenic properties of MDMA: an intense feeling of connection. Entactogenic characterizes being deeply connected to oneself, and empathogenic being deeply connected to others. We therefore suggest the name connectogen as the new basic name for the mind effects of MDMA and MDMA-like substances, a term having the connotation of producing a joining together/producing a connection. Thus, MDMA is basically a connectogen with at least the two major connective properties: entactogenic (intrapersonal) and empathogenic (interpersonal). Furthermore, first evidence shows that MDMA might also have further connectogenic properties such as a strong sense of connection with the here-and-now, the body, the world, and with spiritual principles. Finally, we compare connectogenic properties of MDMA with connectogenic properties of classic psychedelics, and lay out some future research in this regard.
Comparable studies
Other narrative reviews on MDMA, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Human Pharmacology of MDMA | 2004 | Review | |
| Human psychopharmacology of Ecstasy (MDMA): a review of 15 years of empirical research | 2001 | Review | |
| 3,4‐Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, “Ecstasy”): pharmacology and toxicology in animals and humans | 1994 | Review | |
| (±)3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (‘Ecstasy’)-Induced Serotonin Neurotoxicity: Studies in Animals | 2000 | Review | |
| Amphetamine toxicities | 2010 | Review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 16
- Psychedelics, entactogens and psychoplastogens for depression and related disorders British Journal of Pharmacology June 15, 2025
- Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach. Frontiers in Psychiatry 2025
- Subdiaphragmatic vagotomy reduces hypothalamic oxytocin expression and blood levels after oral MDMA administration in male rats. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry March 20, 2025
- Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on the gut microbiota and metabolites in the small intestine, cecum, and colon of male rats. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry January 10, 2025
- Stereoselective, sex-dependent 5-HT2A receptor modulation of cortical plasticity by MDMA in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology February 2, 2026
and 11 more in the library
Cites 29
- The safety and efficacy of {+/-}3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. Journal of Psychopharmacology July 19, 2010
- Patients’ Accounts of Increased “Connectedness” and “Acceptance” After Psilocybin for Treatment-Resistant Depression Journal of Humanistic Psychology June 19, 2017
- Differences Between the Mechanism of Action of MDMA, MBDB, and the Classic Hallucinogens. Identification of a New Therapeutic Class: Entactogens Journal of Psychoactive Drugs October 1, 1986
- 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers: a randomised, double-blind, dose-response, phase 2 clinical trial. The Lancet Psychiatry May 1, 2018
- MDMA-assisted therapy for moderate to severe PTSD: a randomized, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Nature Medicine October 1, 2023
and 24 more in the library