The strength of neural entrainment to electronic music correlates with proxies of altered states of consciousness.
Raquel Aparicio-Terrés, Samantha López-Mochales, Margarita Díaz-Andreu, Carles Escera
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2025 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2025.1574836 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Within-subjects experimental design Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 19 |
| Population | Participants (no further description given) |
| Interventions | 2.25 Hz and 2.85 Hz |
| Duration | One-minute excerpts per condition |
| Topics | Altered states of consciousness Philosophy of mind |
| Keywords | Absorption Electroencephalography Electronic music Frequency-tagging Brainwave entrainment Altered states |
| Citations | 6 |
| Key findings | Slower electronic music tempo (1.65 Hz) produced stronger brainwave entrainment and greater feelings of unity than faster tempos, but individual entrainment magnitude was not significantly related to phenomenological experience; instead, entrainment was positively related to reaction time. |
Abstract
In electronic music events, the driving four-on-the-floor music appears pivotal for inducing altered states of consciousness (ASCs). While various physiological mechanisms link repetitive auditory stimuli to ASCs, entrainment-a brainwave synchronization through periodic external stimuli-has garnered primary focus. However, there are no studies systematically exploring the relationship between entrainment and ASCs. In the present study, we depart from the finding that entrainment to auditory stimuli peaks for stimulation rates around 2 Hz compared to others. Nineteen participants listened to six one-minute electronic music excerpts at different tempos (1.65 Hz, 2.25 Hz, and 2.85 Hz). For each excerpt, they performed cognitive tasks and reported phenomenological experiences related to ASCs through questionnaires. Brain activity was recorded with electroencephalography to assess whether a modulation in entrainment by the beat of electronic music affected objective and subjective proxies of ASCs. Our results revealed a tempo-driven modulation of entrainment at the group level, with entrainment being higher for stimulation rates at 1.65 Hz compared to 2.85 Hz. Similarly, music at 1.65 Hz aroused more feelings of unity compared to music at 2.85 Hz. However, at the individual level, no significant relationship was found between entrainment magnitude and phenomenological experience. Instead, a positive relationship was observed between entrainment and participants' reaction time. The results suggest that brainwave entrainment modulate processes relevant to rhythm-induced ASCs. While we cannot determine whether participants entered an ASC due to design constraints, the observed relationship between entrainment and reaction time at the individual level supports its functional significance.
Comparable studies
Other experimental studies on altered states of consciousness, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Standardized Psychometric Assessment of Altered States of Consciousness (ASCs) in Humans Healthy subjects in six countries | 1998 | Experimental and field study | n = 1,133 |
| TMS-EEG and resting-state EEG applied to altered states of consciousness: oscillations, complexity, and phenomenology. | 2023 | Experimental study | |
| A Test of the Psychedelic Model of Altered States of Consciousness | 1976 | Experimental study with comparison groups | |
| Neural Correlates of Non-ordinary States of Consciousness in Pranayama Practitioners: The Role of Slow Nasal Breathing Experienced meditators | 2022 | Within-subjects comparison | n = 12 |
| Increased spontaneous EEG signal diversity during stroboscopically-induced altered states of consciousness Healthy adults | 2019 | Experimental study |
Citations in the library
Cited by 3
- The rhythms of trance: Cultural phenomenology and neural mechanisms of music-induced non-ordinary states of consciousness. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews July 1, 2026
- Rhythm-Induced Altered States and the Evolution of Human Dance and Music Fascinating life sciences 2026
- Rhythmicity and Trait Absorption Are Linked to Nonordinary States of Consciousness. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences June 1, 2026
Cites 10
- Psychometric Evaluation of the Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (OAV) PLoS One August 31, 2010
- Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness. Psychological Bulletin 2005
- Default Mode Network Modulation by Psychedelics: A Systematic Review The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology October 21, 2022
- Brain Network Reconfiguration and Perceptual Decoupling During an Absorptive State of Consciousness. Cerebral Cortex July 1, 2016
- ‘I Get High With a Little Help From My Friends’ - How Raves Can Invoke Identity Fusion and Lasting Co-operation via Transformative Experiences Frontiers in Psychology September 24, 2021
and 5 more in the library