Phenomenological and physiological correlates of altered states of consciousness induced by rhythmic auditory stimulation
Nicola De Pisapia, Maria Laura Mencaroni, Giulio Velardo, Andrea Polo, Fabio Cifariello Ciardi, Irene Sperandio
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Randomized experimental study Qualitative |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 46 |
| Population | Adults, including trained musicians and non-musicians |
| Duration | Three 15-minute conditions |
| Measures | questionnaire, structured evaluation of hallucinatory-like perceptual phenomena, eye blink rate, pupil diameter |
| Topics | Altered states of consciousness |
| Key findings | Both rhythmic auditory stimulation conditions increased global ASC relative to a silent near-dark control, with no reliable difference in overall ASC intensity between regular and micro-variable rhythms. Micro-variable stimulation was associated with greater structural complexity of visual imagery-like experiences, and non-musicians showed broader ASC modulation across psychometric dimensions while musicians showed more selective effects, primarily perceptual restructuring. |
Abstract
Rhythmic auditory stimulation has long been used across cultures to induce altered states of consciousness (ASC), yet its phenomenological and physiological correlates remain incompletely characterized under controlled laboratory conditions. Here, we investigated whether drumming-derived rhythmic auditory stimulation reliably induces ASC and how stimulus structure and individual expertise shape their expression. Forty-six adults, including trained musicians and non-musicians, were exposed in randomized order to three 15-minute conditions: a looped rhythm depicting a regular two-beats pattern, a live-performance-derived rhythm containing natural micro-variations, and a silent near-dark control condition approximating sensory restriction. Subjective experience was assessed through a questionnaire and a structured evaluation of hallucinatory-like perceptual phenomena, while ocular indices of attention and arousal (eye blink rate and pupil diameter) were continuously recorded via eye tracking.Both rhythmic auditory stimulation conditions robustly increased global ASC relative to the control condition, with no reliable difference between regular and micro-variable rhythms in overall ASC intensity. However, micro-variable stimulation was associated with greater structural complexity of visual imagery-like experiences. Subgroup analyses indicated that non-musicians showed broader ASC modulation across psychometric dimensions, whereas musicians exhibited more selective effects, primarily related to perceptual restructuring. Ocular measures revealed pronounced temporal dynamics and condition-sensitive modulation, consistent with evolving attentional and arousal states during prolonged rhythmic exposure.These findings demonstrate that rhythmic auditory stimulation constitutes a reliable, non-pharmacological route to ASC beyond the effects of sensory restriction alone, and that global intensity, qualitative structure, and physiological dynamics of altered experience can dissociate as a function of stimulus properties and listener expertise.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on altered states of consciousness, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Changes in global and thalamic brain connectivity in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness are attributable to the 5-HT2A receptor Healthy human participants | 2018 | Double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced, cross-over study | n = 24 |
| Effective connectivity changes in LSD-induced altered states of consciousness in humans. Healthy participants | 2019 | Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study | n = 25 |
| Dose-related effects of salvinorin A in humans: dissociative, hallucinogenic, and memory effects. Healthy hallucinogen-using adults | 2013 | Double-blind, placebo-controlled study | n = 8 |
| High doses of dextromethorphan, an NMDA antagonist, produce effects similar to classic hallucinogens. Healthy volunteers with histories of hallucinogen use | 2012 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 12 |
| A placebo-controlled investigation of synaesthesia-like experiences under LSD. | 2016 | Within-groups placebo-controlled pilot study |