Consumer-Grade Neurofeedback With Mindfulness Meditation: Meta-Analysis.
Isaac N Treves, Zia Bajwa, Keara D Greene, Paul A Bloom, Nayoung Kim, Emma Wool, Simon B. Goldberg, Susan Whitfield-Gabrieli, Randy P Auerbach
Journal of Medical Internet Research April 17, 2025 DOI: 10.2196/68204 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Systematic review and meta-analysis Randomized Preregistered Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 930 |
| Population | Participants in randomized controlled training trials and within-participant designs of consumer-grade mindfulness-based neurofeedback |
| Intervention | mindfulness-based neurofeedback |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Keywords | Muse Cognition Consumer grade Device Meta-analyses Neurofeedback Neuroscientific technology Neurotechnologies Neurotechnology Randomized Stress |
| Citations | 8 |
| Key findings | Consumer-grade mindfulness-based neurofeedback modestly reduces psychological distress but does not improve cognition, mindfulness, physiological health, or brain target modulation compared to controls. |
Abstract
There is burgeoning interest in the application of neuroscientific technology to facilitate meditation and lead to beneficial psychological outcomes. One popular approach is using consumer-grade neurofeedback devices to deliver feedback on brain targets during meditation (mindfulness-based neurofeedback). It is hypothesized that optimizing brain targets like alpha and theta band activity may allow meditators to experience deeper mindfulness and thus beneficial outcomes. This study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze the impacts of consumer-grade mindfulness-based neurofeedback compared with control conditions. Included studies involved mindfulness practice operationalized as open monitoring or focused attention meditation. This study was preregistered. A total of 16 randomized controlled training trials, as well as 5 randomized within-participant designs were included, encompassing 763 and 167 unique participants, respectively. Effects were categorized outcomes (ie, psychological distress, cognitive function, and physiological health) and process variables (ie, state mindfulness and brain measures). Study risk of bias, reporting bias, and publication bias were assessed. Samples were typically small (n=30-50), and the majority of studies used mindfulness apps as controls. To deliver neurofeedback, most studies used the Muse device (11/16 randomized controlled trials [RCTs]). There was a modest effect for decreases in psychological distress compared with controls (k=11, g=-0.16, P=.03), and heterogeneity was low (I2< 0.25). However, there was no evidence for improvements in cognition (k=7, g=0.07, P=.48), mindfulness (k=9, g=0.02, P=.83), and physiological health (k=7, g=0.11, P=.57) compared to controls. Mechanistic modulation of brain targets was not found in RCTs or within-participant designs. Sex (male or female), age, clinical status, study quality, active or passive controls, sample size, and neurofeedback duration did not moderate effects. There was some evidence for reporting bias, but no evidence of publication bias. Adverse effects were not assessed in 19 out of 21 studies and not found in the 2 studies that assessed them. Assertions that consumer-grade devices can allow participants to modulate their brains and deepen their meditations are not currently supported. It is possible that neurofeedback effects may rely on "neurosuggestion" (placebo effects of neurotechnology). Future research should examine more extensive calibration and individualization of devices, larger sample sizes, and gold-standard sham-controlled RCTs.
Comparable studies
Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being Diverse adult clinical populations | 2014 | Meta-analysis | n = 3,515 |
| Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Stress Management in Healthy People: A Review and Meta-Analysis Healthy subjects | 2009 | Systematic review and meta-analysis | |
| The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Nonclinical groups of adult meditators | 2012 | Meta-analysis | n = 163 |
| Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in Prevention of Depressive Relapse Adults with recurrent depression in full or partial remission | 2016 | Meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomized controlled trials | n = 1,258 |
| Mindfulness‐Based Stress Reduction and Mindfulness‐Based Cognitive Therapy – a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | 2011 | Systematic review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 6
- No added benefit of VR and neurofeedback-enhanced VR for trait mindfulness in long-term mindfulness training Computers in Human Behavior Reports October 6, 2026
- Human-Computer Co-Regulation: A Review of Biofeedback for Meditative Practice Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies September 30, 2026
- Meditation and neurofeedback: A systematic scoping review, synthesis, and future directions Imaging Neuroscience 2026
- Comparative efficacy of neurofeedback and traditional mindfulness meditation on undergraduates' stress and mindfulness: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of American College Health May 7, 2026
- Investigating the Effect of the 6-Week Mindful Self-Compassion Program for Emerging Adults (EYL) on Stress Response, Brain Activity, and Self-Compassion Among Chinese University Students: An Electroencephalogram (EEG) Quasi-experimental Study Using Portable EEG Headband. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback April 21, 2026
and 1 more in the library
Cites 52
- Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Assessment January 27, 2006
- Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 2004
- Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being JAMA Internal Medicine January 6, 2014
- Mindfulness Interventions Annual Review of Psychology September 30, 2016
- Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation Perspectives on Psychological Science October 10, 2017
and 47 more in the library