Human cognition is fundamentally shaped by the body and its interactions with the environment, challenging traditional views that treat the brain as the sole locus of thought. This opinion article argues that cognitive processes are extended, embodied, and enacted across brain, body, and world, drawing on research in cognitive science and neuroscience to support this perspective. The authors suggest that understanding cognition requires studying the dynamic coupling between neural activity, bodily states, and environmental contexts, rather than focusing solely on internal brain mechanisms.
A neglected traditional model of the central nervous system, the subtle body or chakra system from Indian yoga, may offer a more rigorous typology and mechanistic framework for contemplative practices than current approaches. This comparative review, grounded in the Nalanda tradition, shows that the subtle body model can be cross-referenced with modern CNS maps and challenges them with its embodied network model. It also provides a more refined classification of practices, a more complete network model of their mechanisms, and a user-friendly interoceptive neurofeedback aid for clinical and practical applications.
Meditation research has grown rapidly, converging with cognitive and affective neuroscience and generating many clinical applications. Recent work clarifies mechanisms and effects of diverse practices, and the field is approaching consensus and coherent paradigms. This article proposes complementing conventional research with rigorous dialogue with contemplative traditions that train expert meditators. It explores the Nalanda tradition from India, preserved in Tibet, whose cumulative approach offers a comprehensive framework for interpreting data and guiding research. The article introduces the Indic map of the central nervous system and presents three testable predictions based on it. Two reviewed studies suggest that the multimodal Nalanda approach to contemplative learning is as well received as familiar approaches and may be more effective.
Aging brains can benefit from self-regulation practices like meditation and psychotherapy, which shift the mind from a conservative, self-preserving mode to a generative, learning-oriented mode. This shift reduces the wear-and-tear of stress (allostatic load) and enhances plasticity and positive adaptation (allostatic lift). The review maps brain function along a continuum from atrophic dysfunction to peak performance, linking stress to cognitive, affective, and behavioral 'allostatic drag' and enrichment to 'allostatic lift'. It proposes a universal typology aligning modern brain models with Indo-Tibetan meditative traditions to accelerate research on stress-protection and optimal health.