Set, setting and substance in ayahuasca ceremonies and their association with altered self-awareness experiences: An exploratory investigation
Rafael S. Rodrigues, Marcio S. C. Longo, Fernando R. Beserra, Lucas Villar Magalhães da Cruz, Anna Luiza Guimarães, Isabel Wießner, Bheatrix Bieneman, Tiago Arruda Sanchez, Daniel C Mograbi
Discover Mental Health October 31, 2026 DOI: 10.1007/s44192-026-00638-7 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational study (exploratory online survey, pre- and post-ceremony) Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 483 |
| Population | People attending ayahuasca ceremonies who completed an online survey before and after |
| Intervention | Ayahuasca |
| Measures | Ego Dissolution Inventory, Mystical Experience Questionnaire |
| Topics | Ayahuasca |
| Key findings | Participants' mindset (set) was the strongest correlate of altered self-awareness during ayahuasca ceremonies, with contributions from baseline aberrant salience, interoceptive sensibility, metaphysical beliefs, and spiritual well-being. Greater perceived dose intensity was associated with more intense altered self-awareness, while concomitant cannabis or sananga use was associated with less. Setting and sociodemographic variables were not strong correlates. |
Abstract
Psychedelics, such as ayahuasca, have shown therapeutic potential and are known to alter self-awareness dimensions. Recent studies have focused on the antidepressant properties of ayahuasca, showing that changes in self-perception such as ego-dissolution and mystical experiences are related to therapeutic outcomes. However, limited research has addressed how the individual's mindset (set), environment (setting), substance-related, or sociodemographic characteristics contribute to alterations in self-awareness during ayahuasca use. This exploratory study recruited 483 participants to answer an online survey before and after attending ayahuasca ceremonies. Hierarchical regressions were calculated with outcomes of self-awareness (e.g., the Ego Dissolution Inventory, the Mystical Experience Questionnaire) and correlates such as sociodemographic characteristics, variables related to substance (e.g., perceived dose intensity), set (e.g., psychological traits), and setting (e.g., presence of caretakers). Participants’ set was the strongest correlate of altered self-awareness experiences, with contributions of baseline aberrant salience, interoceptive sensibility, metaphysical beliefs, and spiritual well-being. Substance variables also provided contributions for a few constructs, specifically greater intensity of altered self-awareness experiences with ayahuasca perceived dosage and fewer with concomitant cannabis or sananga ( Tabernaemontana sananho ) use. Setting and sociodemographic variables were not strong correlates. Given the exploratory design, associations are interpreted from the magnitude of standardized coefficients and effect sizes, with false discovery rate corrections reported at two levels. The remaining associations are reported as exploratory trends. These findings are discussed in relation to clinical implications and the phenomenology of the psychedelic experience. Not applicable.
Comparable studies
Other cross-sectional and survey studies on ayahuasca, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Survey of subjective "God encounter experiences": Comparisons among naturally occurring experiences and those occasioned by the classic psychedelics psilocybin, LSD, ayahuasca, or DMT Adults reporting a single most memorable God encounter experience, either nondrug or... | 2019 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 4,285 |
| Adverse effects of ayahuasca: Results from the Global Ayahuasca Survey. Ayahuasca users from more than 50 countries who completed an online survey | 2022 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 10,836 |
| Ayahuasca in adolescence: a preliminary psychiatric assessment. Adolescents from a Brazilian ayahuasca sect and matched controls | 2005 | Controlled cross-sectional study | n = 80 |
| Psychological and neuropsychological assessment of regular hoasca users. Regular hoasca users from a U.S. branch of União do Vegetal and matched non-user controls | 2016 | Cross-sectional study | n = 57 |
| Indoleamine Hallucinogens in Cluster Headache: Results of the Clusterbusters Medication Use Survey People with cluster headache | 2015 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 496 |