Enhancing Mindfulness Effects on Well-Being Using Immersive Virtual Reality in Non-Clinical Populations: Where Are We Going?

Abstract Objectives Mindfulness practices mediated by immersive virtual reality (VR) have emerged as a novel mediator to deliver and potentially enhance mindfulness experiences and psychological well-being. Although psycho-technology is widely applied in clinical populations there remains a lack of methodological studies evaluating best practices for delivering such interventions to promote psychological well-being in the healthy population. This systematic review aimed to consolidate current evidence on the application of VR-based mindfulness interventions (VR-MBIs) to offer recommendations for future research directions and clinical applications.

Method: A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted, according to PRISMA guidelines, to identify RCT peer-reviewed studies that combined immersive VR with mindfulness practices targeting healthy populations. Studies were included if they reported quantitative outcomes related to mood, affect and mindfulness changes.

Results: Sixteen RCTs studies found that VR-MBIs led to significant improvements in various psychological outcomes compared to control conditions, including reductions in negative affect, anxiety, depression, and stress levels, as well as enhancements in positive affect, mindfulness state and psychological well-being. No significant neurophysiological markers of behavioural outcomes have consistently been described. Variability in control group types (i.e., no-treatment, mobile app, audio/video-based mindfulness) influenced comparative effectiveness between studies.

Conclusions: Further research is needed to support the implementation of VR-MBIs not only for clinical purposes but also as a tool to promote psychological well-being in healthy populations. Despite the consistent and widespread psychological benefits, this field of study requires validation of neurophysiological markers, standardization of psychological measures and commercial tools delivering VR-MBIs. Preregistration The study was preregistered (PROSPERO ID #1052725).