Caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin: Pharmacology, toxicology, and potential therapeutic uses of four naturally occurring psychoactive substances
Samuel E Christen, Elias Bekka, Yasmin Schmid, Neal L. Benowitz, Evangelia Liakoni
Swiss Medical Weekly July 1, 2025 DOI: 10.57187/s.4346 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Narrative review Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Topics | Cannabis Psilocybin |
| Keywords | Nicotine Hallucinogen Psychoactive drug Pharmacology Caffeine Psychoactive substance |
| Citations | 3 |
| Key findings | Caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin have well-known pharmacological and toxicological properties, and ongoing research explores their therapeutic potential for specific diseases and disorders. |
Abstract
Psychoactive substances are compounds that can influence perception, consciousness, cognition, and emotions. The psychoactive substances caffeine, nicotine, cannabis, and psilocybin all originate from natural sources and can be used without complex processing or synthesis. Their natural availability has contributed to a long-standing history of human use and cultural significance. Caffeine and nicotine are freely available and commonly used as everyday stimulants, whereas psilocybin is more strictly regulated and cannabis has been legalised in some countries and regions. Some of these substances have been intensively studied, and their pharmacological and toxicological properties are well known, but ongoing research continues to investigate their therapeutic use for specific diseases and disorders. This narrative review aims to provide an overview of the pharmacology and toxicology of these four naturally occurring psychoactive substances, including a summary of the currently available evidence on their therapeutic potential, health benefits, and associated risks.
Comparable studies
Other narrative reviews on cannabis, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence | 2004 | Review | |
| Cannabis sativa: A comprehensive ethnopharmacological review of a medicinal plant with a long history. General (historical and pharmacological review) | 2018 | Review | |
| Psychiatric effects of cannabis | 2001 | Review | |
| Beyond THC: The New Generation of Cannabinoid Designer Drugs | 2011 | Review | |
| Cannabidiol, a Cannabis sativa constituent, as an antipsychotic drug | 2006 | Review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 1
Cites 60
- Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with life-threatening cancer: A randomized double-blind trial Journal of Psychopharmacology November 30, 2016
- Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following psilocybin treatment for anxiety and depression in patients with life-threatening cancer: a randomized controlled trial Journal of Psychopharmacology November 30, 2016
- Trial of Psilocybin versus Escitalopram for Depression New England Journal of Medicine April 14, 2021
- Pilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer Archives of General Psychiatry September 7, 2010
- Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. Journal of Psychopharmacology July 1, 2008
and 55 more in the library