Toxicology Reports
January 1, 2021
Natalie Álvarez-alarcón, Jhon Jairo Osorio-Méndez, Adis Ayala-Fajardo et al.
26 citations
25C-NBOMe, a synthetic hallucinogen from the NBOMe family, is highly toxic in two animal models: brine shrimp (Artemia salina) and zebrafish embryos. Lethality tests showed high toxicity, and the substance altered swimming and motility patterns in brine shrimp. In zebrafish, it caused abnormal motor responses and developmental defects, suggesting teratogenic potential. These findings correlate with clinically reported side effects in human users, such as motor abnormalities and muscle deterioration. This is the first in vivo report on 25C-NBOMe's toxicological and developmental effects, advancing understanding of its impact on behavior and development.
Toxicology Reports
June 1, 2025
Sabrina Marongiu, Maarten van Eijk, Femke M J Gresnigt et al.
9 citations
Recreational ketamine use has risen sharply in the Netherlands, especially among young adults in nightlife settings, leading to more first aid incidents often involving combinations with alcohol or MDMA that increase toxicity. Acute intoxication causes agitation, hallucinations, nausea, tachycardia, and hypertension; frequent use can lead to long-term complications like ketamine-induced uropathy. Although ketamine is not currently part of standard toxicological screenings, including it could help diagnose mixed intoxications, rule out other causes, and support referrals to follow-up care, improving diagnostic accuracy and addressing health risks from its growing prevalence.
Toxicology Reports
June 1, 2025
Leonardo Costalonga Rodrigues, Alexandre Barcia de Godoi, Viviane Cristina Fais et al.
4 citations
MDMB-4en-PINACA, a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist, caused severe developmental abnormalities and high embryo mortality in zebrafish at 10 µM, including pericardial edema, yolk edema, coagulation, and lack of heartbeat or somite formation. In contrast, the ketamine derivatives deschloroketamine and 2-fluorodeschloroketamine showed low embryo mortality even at higher concentrations. In larval stages, MDMB-4en-PINACA caused 8% mortality at 10 µM by eight days post-fertilization, while the ketamine derivatives led to 100% mortality at 2000 µM. MDMB-4en-PINACA was approximately 26 times more toxic than the ketamine derivatives based on LC50 values. The results support the absence of NMDA receptors in early zebrafish life stages, explaining the lower toxicity of ketamine derivatives early on.
Toxicology Reports
October 11, 2016
Michael T. Williams, Matthew R. Skelton, Ian D. Longacre et al.
3 citations
Rats given MDMA during a period of brain development equivalent to late human pregnancy showed lasting changes in brain cell structure. In the nucleus accumbens, dendrites were shorter with fewer spines. In the dentate gyrus, dendritic length decreased but spine density increased. In the entorhinal cortex, both basilar and apical dendritic lengths were reduced. These structural changes occurred in brain regions linked to learning and memory, matching previously observed cognitive deficits in MDMA-exposed animals.
Toxicology Reports
June 1, 2025
Eva Gil-Martins, Daniel José Barbosa, Fernanda Borges et al.
2 citations
Psychedelic phenethylamines, including 2C drugs and their NBOMe derivatives, are new psychoactive substances developed to evade drug control regulations. While psychedelics are traditionally considered to have low addiction potential, recent reports raise concerns. These drugs primarily act on serotonin receptors, especially the 5-HT2A subtype, altering perception, mood, and introspection. They are also linked to adverse effects like cardiovascular problems and neurotoxicity. This review examines the psychedelic pathways of 2C and NBOMe drugs, focusing on their interactions with serotonergic and other neurotransmitter systems and their potential for abuse.
Toxicology Reports
June 1, 2025
Aliaa A Hodeib, Alshaimma Mahmoud Elmansy, Mona M Ghonem
2 citations
Natural cannabinoid poisoning is more common than synthetic cannabinoid poisoning. In a review of 106 cases from a poison control center, children (68 patients) more often had impaired consciousness and slow breathing, while adults (38 patients) more often had low oxygen, rapid heart rate, low potassium, and high white blood cell count. The time between exposure and medical help, along with potassium level, predicted complications in children. Delay to medical help and oxygen saturation predicted longer hospital stays in children. Only four patients had synthetic cannabinoid poisoning, mainly with seizures, rapid heart rate, high blood pressure, fast breathing, and low oxygen.
Toxicology Reports
May 10, 2026
Amadea Bleisch, Selina Späni, Regina Schumann et al.
Ingesting large quantities of nutmeg can cause psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects. A 23-year-old man on long-term fluoxetine and quetiapine who ingested 75 g of nutmeg with suicidal intent developed tachycardia and mydriasis four hours later, became somnolent after about 14 hours, and all symptoms resolved spontaneously within 26 hours. Analysis of enquiries to the Swiss national poison information center from 2014 to 2023 identified 236 patients (51% female, ages 0–85). The highest number of enquiries (30) occurred in 2020 and 2021, coinciding with a TikTok nutmeg challenge and increased home baking during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nutmeg intoxications usually show a mild course, and incidence may be subject to social influences.
Toxicology Reports
December 19, 2024
Elizabeth F. Ebbens, Saralyn R. Williams, Rebecca E. Bruccoleri et al.
A 17-year-old girl who ate a chocolate bar marketed as a medicinal mushroom product developed altered mental status, dilated pupils, salivation, and muscle jerks that did not respond to benzodiazepines. She required a breathing tube but all symptoms resolved within 8 hours, and she was discharged the next day. The product, "Diamond Shruumz," had been recalled because it likely contained muscimol, the main toxin in Amanita muscaria mushrooms. This case shows that unregulated medicinal mushroom supplements can be contaminated with toxic substances, producing a recognizable toxidrome. It is among the first reports of such contamination in a commercially available product.