Investigating Associations between Maternal Mindfulness, Mental Health, Interoception and Mother-Infant Relationship during Pregnancy and Post-Partum in a Non-Clinical Community Sample
Antonella Sansone, Peta Stapleton, Alan Patching, Zoe Lawrence
OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine October 26, 2025 DOI: 10.21926/obm.icm.2504046 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational longitudinal study Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 110 |
| Population | Non-clinical community sample of pregnant women, mostly from Australia with others from New Zealand, UK, USA, and Canada; middle to upper class socioeconomic background; aged 18-47 (mean 33.22) |
| Duration | Three assessment time points: 20+ weeks gestation, approximately 36 weeks gestation, and 10-12 weeks postpartum |
| Measures | EPDS, DASS-21 |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | Maternal depression and anxiety decreased significantly from pregnancy to postpartum, and maternal-foetal attachment increased from the second to third trimester. Mindfulness and interoception correlated positively with mother-infant relationship and negatively with depression, anxiety, and stress across all three time points. The authors suggest pregnancy and transition to motherhood may not necessarily be a mental-health risk factor in non-clinical samples. |
Abstract
Pregnancy and the postpartum period are times of significant transition for women, with changes in maternal physical and mental health. The relationship between a mother and her infant has been recognised as laying the foundation for later child development. There is considerable evidence that this early relationship is influenced by a woman’s wellbeing during pregnancy and in the early post-partum period. Mindfulness has been found to have positive health outcomes, primarily in reducing maternal stress, anxiety, and depression. However, there remains a need for considering the influence of mindfulness on the mother-infant relationship during pregnancy and the first trimester post-partum. Given the limited research on interoception in pregnancy, this maternal variable was included to acknowledge the importance of embodiment in maternal mindfulness, mental health, and mother-infant relationship. Its relevance was assessed through the associations with all the other measures. This study was the first to explore associations between maternal mindfulness, mental health (depression, anxiety, and stress), interoception, and mother-infant relationship during pregnancy and post-partum across three time points in a non-clinical community sample. This can provide possible avenues for assessment and support strategies by pre and perinatal healthcare practitioners. Women were assessed at 20+ weeks gestation (110), approximately 36-week gestation (72) and 10-12 weeks postpartum (67). Their age ranged from 18 to 47 (M = 33.22). The majority were from Australia and the rest from New Zealand, UK, USA, and Canada. They were from middle to upper class socioeconomic background and from high school/equivalent to doctoral degree educational level, with the majority holding a bachelor’s degree. The maternal variables were assessed with self-report questionnaires. Changes in the maternal variables during pregnancy and postpartum across three timepoints were analysed using ANOVA. Correlations were investigated using Pearson correlational analyses. Maternal depression and anxiety significantly decreased from pregnancy to postpartum with p = 0.035 for the difference in depressive scores (EPDS) and p = 0.012 for the difference in anxiety scores (DASS-21 subscale). Mother-infant relationship during pregnancy increased from the second to the third trimester of gestation, with p = 0.004 for the difference in maternal-foetal attachment scores. Significant correlations were found between all maternal variables across the three timepoints. Mindfulness and interoception positively correlated with mother-infant relationship during pregnancy and postpartum and negatively correlated with maternal depression, anxiety, and stress. A power analysis was conducted using G*Power calculation by Tabachnick & Fidell. The sample size required to estimate a medium effect was 100 participants, with power set at 0.95 and an alpha at 0.05. The current sample size (N 110) satisfied this to get meaningful results. The decrease in depression and anxiety post childbirth may confirm untested speculation in the literature that pregnancy, childbirth, and the transition to motherhood may not necessarily represent a risk factor for mental health but enrichment of identity and mitigation of mild/moderate depression in a non-clinical sample. Maternal mindfulness, mental health, and interoception may have an important impact on the quality of mother-infant relationship during pregnancy and post-partum, with potential consequences on infant development and wellbeing. The findings of this study have significant implication for prenatal support programs aiming to reduce the risk for postnatal psychological disorders and mother-infant relationship difficulties by promoting mother-infant relationship and maternal embodiment through interoception and wellbeing during pregnancy. Pre and perinatal practitioners and therapists working in a range of healthcare and clinical settings may support pregnant women through mindfulness relationship-based programs to promote mindfulness, interoception, and their relationship with their developing infant in utero and post-partum, thus impacting infant healthy development. Future research with larger sample sizes is needed to increase the statistical power to detect smaller effect sizes. Furthermore, the use of objective or observational measures should be considered for future studies to represent a stronger study design.
Comparable studies
Other observational and cohort studies on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Undergraduate students | 2006 | Observational cohort | |
| Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders Patients with generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia | 1992 | Observational cohort | n = 22 |
| Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness Participants with extensive Insight meditation experience and matched controls | 2005 | Observational cohort | n = 20 |
| Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity Experienced meditators and matched meditation-naive controls | 2011 | Observational cohort | |
| Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice Long-term Buddhist practitioners and controls | 2004 | Observational cohort |
Citations in the library
Cites 6
- The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003
- Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology Science and Practice 2003
- Interoception, contemplative practice, and health Frontiers in Psychology June 9, 2015
- Benefits of preparing for childbirth with mindfulness training: a randomized controlled trial with active comparison BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth August 14, 2018
- Mindfulness-Based Interventions During Pregnancy: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Mindfulness December 1, 2017
and 1 more in the library