Motivation and retrospective appraisal of psychedelic study participation: a qualitative study in healthy volunteers.
Laura Ley, Matthias E. Liechti, Anna M Becker, Isabelle Straumann, Aaron Klaiber, Friederike Holze, Severin B Vogt, Denis Arikci, Yasmin Schmid
Psychopharmacology March 26, 2025 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-025-06772-4 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Qualitative content analysis of data from six randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trials Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 151 |
| Population | Healthy volunteers who ingested serotonergic psychedelics in trials at the same research site |
| Intervention | serotonergic psychedelics |
| Topics | DMT LSD Mescaline Psilocybin |
| Keywords | Appraisal Healthy volunteers Motivation Psychedelics Entheogens Context Psychedelic research hallucinogens Atmosphere Surroundings Research participation |
| Citations | 3 |
| Key findings | Healthy volunteers' positive psychedelic trial experiences depend on a secure interpersonal relationship, an aesthetically pleasing environment, access to nature, and music, while a sterile setting and lack of investigator support are criticized. |
Abstract
Little is known about motives of healthy volunteers to participate in psychedelic trials and how they appraise their study experience retrospectively. This paper explored reasons why healthy people register for psychedelic trials, factors that they considered to contribute to either positive or negative study experiences, and under which circumstances they would seek a psychedelic experience again. This study used the data of 151 healthy volunteers who had ingested serotonergic psychedelics in one of six randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trials at the same research site under similar conditions. The data were analyzed through qualitative content analysis. The predominant motivations to participate in a trial were interest in psychedelics and an appealing setting. Expectations involved personal development and the occurrence of typical psychedelic effects. Hopes included transformative processes. The setting factors that promoted a positive experience were music and access to nature, whereas the sterile hospital environment was considered bothersome. Most participants valued the trusting relationship with their investigator. The most commonly criticized investigator characteristics were a perceived lack of support and investigator-induced psychological discomfort. Most participants considered their expectations exceeded and would take the study substances again, preferably in a setting in nature with friends. This paper identified four pivotal factors to be considered for psychedelic study experiences: (1) a secure interpersonal relationship, (2) an aesthetically pleasing environment, (3) access to nature, and (4) the use of music. This analysis reveals subjective views of volunteers in psychedelic Phase-I trials and may improve research standards.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on mescaline, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants. Healthy participants | 2023 | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over | n = 32 |
| DOM (STP), a New Hallucinogenic Drug, and DOET: Effects in Normal Subjects Normal subjects | 1968 | Double-blind study | |
| Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex and its attentional modulation in the human S-ketamine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) models of psychosis Healthy volunteers | 2007 | Double-blind crossover study | n = 15 |
| Frenquel, a Blocking Agent Against Experimental LSD‐25 and Mescaline Psychosis Patients with ALS and pseudobulbar affect | 1955 | Randomized controlled trial | n = 140 |
| Assessment of the Acute Effects of 2C‐B vs. Psilocybin on Subjective Experience, Mood, and Cognition Healthy psychedelic-experienced participants | 2023 | Within-subjects, double-blind, placebo-controlled study | n = 22 |
Citations in the library
Cited by 3
- Expectations and Motivations for Participation in Clinical Trials Utilizing Psychedelics for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Qualitative Study. Brain and Behavior June 1, 2026
- Acute and post-acute neurobehavioral responses to lysergic acid diethylamide in healthy subjects: a randomized controlled study Neuropsychopharmacology June 18, 2026
- Psychedelika in der Psychotherapie: Von der pharmakologischen Wirkung zur transdiagnostischen Veränderung Suchttherapie May 12, 2026
Cites 38
- Human hallucinogen research: guidelines for safety. Journal of Psychopharmacology July 1, 2008
- Patients’ Accounts of Increased “Connectedness” and “Acceptance” After Psilocybin for Treatment-Resistant Depression Journal of Humanistic Psychology June 19, 2017
- LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease: A qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects Journal of Psychopharmacology November 11, 2014
- Patient Experiences of Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Journal of Humanistic Psychology April 28, 2017
- Psychedelic therapy for smoking cessation: Qualitative analysis of participant accounts Journal of Psychopharmacology June 25, 2018
and 33 more in the library