Morpho-agronomic characterization of Lagenaria siceraria landraces from northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Abstract

both pollen and fermented starch have been utilized in Sri Lanka, India, Japan, Central America, Australia, and central Africa as male aphrodisiacs and in intoxicating beverages at ceremonial events.In Limpopo, South Africa, our fieldwork revealed that widespread damage to Encephalartos populations is caused by extraction for traditional ritual purposes as well as for recreational drug use.In Mexico, we found that several Dioon, Ceratozamia, and Zamia species are consumed both recreationally and sacramentally; shamans and casual users report experiencing "peyote" visions akin to those of the cactus Lophophora williamsii.Our findings suggest that the widespread religious and ritual importance of cycads may be rooted in part in their intoxicating and potentially hallucinogenic effects.Important questions include identities of the chemical compounds involved, the nature of the psychotropic effects produced in users, and the true extent of adverse effects on people and cycads.We recommend that researchers and conservation authorities acknowledge and address these issues in an urgent fashion, while remaining sensitive to ceremonial traditions and respectful of religious considerations.