A naturalistic study of orally administered vs. inhaled legal market cannabis: cannabinoids exposure, intoxication, and impairment
L. C. Bidwell, Hollis C Karoly, M. O. Torres, Ashley Master, Angela D Bryan, Kent E. Hutchison
Psychopharmacology October 27, 2021 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-021-06007-2 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational study Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 84 |
| Population | Adults who used cannabis at least once per week (55 flower cannabis users, 29 edible cannabis users; mean age 31.95 years, 44% female) |
| Intervention | Legal market edible cannabis |
| Topics | Cannabis |
| Key findings | Self-reported ad libitum THC consumed correlated strongly with plasma THC after edible cannabis use but not flower use. Plasma THC was higher after inhaled cannabis, yet plasma THC metabolites, subjective intoxication, and verbal memory impairment were similar between edible and flower users, suggesting few differences in intoxication and impairment after ad libitum use. |
Abstract
Published studies examining the effects of cannabis have largely utilized forms of cannabis that are not representative of the legal market products currently available. The present study aimed to characterize naturalistic use of legal market flower and edible products by examining associations among blood cannabinoids and amount of THC consumed as well as physiological, cognitive, and subjective effects in users of edible and flower forms. Eighty-four participants who used cannabis at least 1 × /week (55 flower cannabis using participants; 29 edible cannabis using participants mean age = 31.95 years, 44% female) participated. At the experimental appointment in our mobile laboratory, participants completed a blood draw to assess plasma cannabinoids, measures of heart rate, subjective drug effects, and cognition both before and after ad libitum use of legal market flower or edible cannabis. Average self-reported THC consumed was 15.97 mg (SD = 22.40) in edible users and 51.25 mg (SD = 45.23) in flower users. In the edible group, but not the flower group, strong correlations emerged between self-reported ad libitum THC consumed and plasma THC. Plasma THC was significantly higher after use of inhaled cannabis, but similar levels of plasma THC metabolites and similar levels of subjective intoxication and verbal memory impairment were observed in both flower and edible users. Findings support strong correlations among ad libitum THC consumed and THC plasma levels after edible cannabis use and suggest few differences in intoxication and impairment between edible and flower cannabis users after ad libitum use. This novel study provides important preliminary data on the pharmacology and effects of legal market edible cannabis.
Comparable studies
Other observational and cohort studies on cannabis, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis People with first episode of psychosis and healthy controls from the local population | 2009 | Case-control study | n = 454 |
| Ayahuasca-Assisted Therapy for Addiction: Results from a Preliminary Observational Study in Canada Rural aboriginal population | 2013 | Observational study | |
| Impaired cognitive performance in drug free users of recreational ecstasy (MDMA) Otherwise healthy young people | 2000 | Observational | |
| Continued cannabis use and risk of incidence and persistence of psychotic symptoms: 10 year follow-up cohort study Individuals from the general population in Germany aged 14-24 at baseline | 2011 | Observational cohort | n = 1,923 |
| Cannabis-induced psychosis and subsequent schizophrenia-spectrum disorders: follow-up study of 535 incident cases Patients treated for cannabis-induced psychotic symptoms in Denmark between 1994 and... | 2005 | Observational cohort | n = 535 |
Citations in the library
Cited by 7
- Psilocybin Outside the Clinic JAMA Psychiatry November 5, 2025
- Effects of naturalistic doses of cannabis edibles on cognition and association with blood THC. Psychopharmacology March 1, 2026
- The subjective effects of △9-tetrahydrocannabinol: A systematic review and dose-response meta-regression. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews June 3, 2026
- The effects of naturalistic cannabis use on cognition and subjective experience in older adults with normal cognitive function Journal of Psychopharmacology November 3, 2025
- Effects of different methods of cannabis use on cognition and blood THC: A systematic review. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry May 1, 2025
and 2 more in the library
Cites 6
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- Exposure to cannabinoids can lead to persistent cognitive and psychiatric disorders European Journal of Pain February 22, 2019
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- Tasty THC: Promises and Challenges of Cannabis Edibles November 15, 2016
- Divergent effects of cannabidiol on the discriminative stimulus and place conditioning effects of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol. Drug and Alcohol Dependence April 1, 2008
and 1 more in the library