Time perspective, mindfulness, and psychological symptoms: psychometric properties of the Turkish short Zimbardo time perspective inventory
Nur Nihal Türkel, Mustafa Cemil Karaduran, Hande Gazey, Ahmet Selim Başaran, İrem Ekmekçi
BMC Psychology December 15, 2025 DOI: 10.1186/s40359-025-03699-5 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Cross-sectional survey Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 367 |
| Population | Turkish adults recruited by convenience sampling; mean age 25.81 years, 61.9% female |
| Measures | Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory - Short Form (ZTPI-Short), Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), exploratory structural equation model (ESEM), ordinal alpha, omega, Fornell-Larcker, HTMT |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | The Turkish ZTPI-Short showed a six-factor structure explaining 59% of variance, with acceptable reliability for most subscales and good fit under an exploratory structural equation model (CFI = 0.960, RMSEA = 0.069). Mindfulness mediated the relationships between past negative time perspective and depression and between future negative time perspective and anxiety, suggesting temporal orientation and mindfulness matter for depression and anxiety symptoms. |
Abstract
Background: Our perspective on time constitutes a fundamental aspect of psychological functioning, making the assessment of time perspective critically important. This study aimed to examine the validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the 18-item Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory - Short Form (ZTPI-Short), which includes the "Future Negative" subscale, and to explore the relationship between mindfulness and time perspective.
Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional online survey was conducted, and participants were reached through a convenience sampling procedure. A total of 367 participants were included in the analysis. The factor structure of the inventory was evaluated through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation model (ESEM).
Results: The mean age of participants was 25.81 (SD = 0.741), and 61.9% were female. Among the participants, 13.9% reported having a physical illness, and 14.7% reported having a psychiatric disorder. EFA supported a six-factor solution explaining 59% of variance. CFA showed limited fit improved by theory-justified residual covariance; ESEM yielded substantially better fit (CFI = 0.960, TLI = 0.896, RMSEA = 0.069, SRMR = 0.026). Under MLR, information criteria favored six over five factors. Ordinal α exceeded 0.70 for most subscales; ω ≥ 0.70 for five subscales, with Present Hedonistic marginal (ω = 0.678) yet supported by mean loading (0.690) and discriminant evidence. Fornell-Larcker and HTMT (< 0.85; highest 0.673 for Past Negative-Future Negative) indicated discriminant validity. Furthermore, mediation analyses demonstrated that mindfulness significantly mediated the relationships between past negative time perspective and depression, and between future negative time perspective and anxiety.
Conclusion: The study provides evidence for the validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the ZTPI-Short. These results underscore the importance of integrating both temporal orientation and mindfulness into psychological assessment and intervention strategies aimed at reducing depression and anxiety symptoms.
Comparable studies
Other cross-sectional and survey studies on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Construct Validity of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire in Meditating and Nonmeditating Samples Experienced meditators and nonmeditating comparison groups | 2008 | Cross-sectional study | |
| Neural Correlates of Dispositional Mindfulness During Affect Labeling Adult participants | 2007 | Observational cross-sectional | n = 27 |
| Assessing mindfulness in children and adolescents: Development and validation of the Child and Adolescent Mindfulness Measure (CAMM). School-aged children and adolescents | 2011 | Cross-sectional validation study | n = 1,413 |
| Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators Experienced meditators and demographically matched nonmeditators | 2012 | Cross-sectional study | n = 152 |
| Mechanisms of Action in the Inverse Relationship Between Mindfulness and Psychological Distress Undergraduates | 2008 | Cross-sectional, correlational |
Citations in the library
Cites 4
- The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2003
- Mechanisms of mindfulness Journal of Clinical Psychology December 29, 2005
- Mindfulness Promotes a More Balanced Time Perspective: Correlational and Intervention-Based Evidence Mindfulness February 22, 2019
- Effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy via e-health on anxiety and depression in adults: A meta-analysis. General Hospital Psychiatry July 24, 2025