Measuring mindfulness: A systematic review and evaluation of self-report mindfulness scales.
Clinical Psychology Review February 25, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2026.102719 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Systematic review Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Population | 21 self-report mindfulness scales intended for adult populations, tested in their English versions |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | Across 21 English-language self-report mindfulness scales, responsiveness and internal consistency were typically adequate, but discriminant validity, test-retest reliability, and floor/ceiling effects were inadequately reported or inconsistent, and content validity varied widely. The authors report that none of the scales measured mindfulness as the co-occurrence of present-moment awareness and attitudinal aspects within individual items, and they argue for developing a new measure that better integrates mindfulness theory with psychometric rigor. |
Abstract
The growing body of research on mindfulness has led to the development of a wide range of self-report instruments designed to assess the construct. However, conceptual and psychometric issues have arisen, partly as a result of inconsistent definitions and operationalizations, but also from challenges in scale development and validation. This systematic review synthesizes and evaluates the psychometric qualities of 21 self-report mindfulness scales intended for adult populations and tested in their English versions. The scales were evaluated in reference to nine psychometric quality domains, each rated on a 4-point scale. The findings show that while responsiveness and internal consistency were typically adequate across measures, other psychometric characteristics, including discriminant validity, test-retest reliability, and floor/ceiling effects, were either inadequately reported or performed inconsistently. In addition, content validity varied widely, and most measures did not fully align with a newly refined definition of mindfulness. Notably, none of the reviewed scales measured mindfulness as the co-occurrence of present-moment awareness and attitudinal aspects within individual items, thus limiting their ability to assess mindfulness as an integrated construct. This review underscores persistent conceptual and psychometric limitations and calls for the development of a new self-report measure that effectively balances theoretical comprehensiveness with methodological robustness. Future efforts should aim to integrate the richness of mindfulness theory with the demands of rigorous psychometric evaluation, thereby strengthening treatment evaluation and therapeutic monitoring in the context of mindfulness-based interventions and programs.
Comparable studies
Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being Diverse adult clinical populations | 2014 | Meta-analysis | n = 3,515 |
| Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Stress Management in Healthy People: A Review and Meta-Analysis Healthy subjects | 2009 | Systematic review and meta-analysis | |
| The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Nonclinical groups of adult meditators | 2012 | Meta-analysis | n = 163 |
| Efficacy of Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy in Prevention of Depressive Relapse Adults with recurrent depression in full or partial remission | 2016 | Meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomized controlled trials | n = 1,258 |
| Mindfulness‐Based Stress Reduction and Mindfulness‐Based Cognitive Therapy – a systematic review of randomized controlled trials | 2011 | Systematic review |
Citations in the library
Cited by 4
- Effects of Mindfulness and Psychological Capital on Engagement: Analysis from Healthcare Administrative Sciences September 29, 2026
- Mindfulness in Latin America: Psychometric Insights from the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS-5) Across Four Countries European Journal of Mental Health August 3, 2026
- Development and Initial Validation of the Mindfulness Operationalisation of Eastern Techniques (MOET): A Theory-Driven Extension of Mindfulness Assessment Based on Patañjali's Aṣṭāṅga Yoga Research Square September 11, 2026
- Higher mindfulness and lower self-absorption predict greater compassion within romantic relationships. Communications Psychology June 6, 2026
Cites 22
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- Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Assessment January 27, 2006
- Assessment of Mindfulness by Self-Report Assessment September 1, 2004
- The toronto mindfulness scale: Development and validation Journal of Clinical Psychology 2006
- Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation. American Psychologist October 1, 2015
and 17 more in the library