Heart and ocular correlates of self-caught and probe-caught mind wandering during focused mindfulness meditation in meditators and controls
Sara Sorella, Alessio Matiz, Cristiano Crescentini
Scientific Reports August 13, 2026 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-026-66405-4 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational cohort Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 56 |
| Population | Experienced meditators and non-meditating controls |
| Intervention | Breath-focused meditation |
| Topics | Meditation |
| Key findings | Meditators showed stable heart rate during focused attention, whereas controls showed increased heart rate; meditators had lower eye movements in both paradigms and a positive correlation between self-caught and probe-caught mind-wandering counts, suggesting more regulated meta-awareness. |
Abstract
Focused meditation involves a dynamic cycle of four mental states: mind-wandering (MW), awareness of distraction (AWARE), shifting attention back (SHIFT), and sustained attentional focus (FOCUS). Meta-awareness of these processes is trained during mindfulness meditation, possibly improving mental health. This study investigated heart rate (HR) and ocular movements during breath-focused meditation in 28 experienced meditators and 28 non-meditating controls. The design integrated two complementary approaches: self-caught (i.e., spontaneously noticing when attention drifts away from the breath) and probe-caught (i.e., interrupting participants to report their attentional state) sampling methods for mind-wandering, alongside mindfulness questionnaires. In the self-caught paradigm, the Group × Phase interaction (p = .017) showed HR increase during FOCUS only in controls. In contrast, meditators’ HR remained stable and showed a negative association with non-judging during AWARE (BF10 = 12.91). Eye movements increased particularly during SHIFT in both groups (p < .001). However, meditators showed lower eye movements in both paradigms (ps ≤ .002). Finally, only meditators showed a significant positive correlation between self-caught and probe-caught episode counts (BF10 = 860.42). These results suggest that mindfulness meditation expertise may be associated with more regulated and less reactive meta-awareness of distraction, with potential implications for maladaptive thought patterns and mental health.
Comparable studies
Other observational and cohort studies on meditation, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Undergraduate students | 2006 | Observational cohort | |
| Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders Patients with generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia | 1992 | Observational cohort | n = 22 |
| Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness Participants with extensive Insight meditation experience and matched controls | 2005 | Observational cohort | n = 20 |
| Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity Experienced meditators and matched meditation-naive controls | 2011 | Observational cohort | |
| Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice Long-term Buddhist practitioners and controls | 2004 | Observational cohort |