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A Decade Apart: Reciprocal Links Between Spiritual Mindfulness, Sense of Control, and Well-Being in Middle and Older Age Americans.

Nathaniel J Johnson, Hali Kil

Journal of Religion and Health July 3, 2026 DOI: 10.1007/s10943-026-02721-3 (opens in new tab)

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Study at a glance

AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Observational longitudinal study using cross-lagged panel model Peer reviewed
Sample size 2,878
Population Middle-aged and older adults from the Midlife in the US (MIDUS) study; mean age 54.94 years; 55.3% female
Duration Two time points spanning a decade (mean interval 9.09 years)
Topics Meditation
Keywords Psychological well-being Sense of control Midus Aging adults Spiritual mindfulness
Key findings The authors report reciprocal associations between spiritual mindfulness and sense of control and between sense of control and psychological well-being across a decade. Spiritual mindfulness at the earlier time point predicted psychological well-being ten years later, but the reverse path was not significant, suggesting the link is one-directional. They propose that sense of control may be important when considering spiritual mindfulness and well-being in middle-aged and older adults.

Abstract

Evidence suggests that spiritual mindfulness, sense of control, and psychological well-being are associated. However, less research has examined these connections over long time periods in middle-aged and older adults, who generally experience less control in their lives. The present study investigated the long-term reciprocal links between a spiritual form of mindfulness, sense of control, and psychological well-being in middle-aged and older adults, across a decade. Middle-aged and older adult (N = 2878; Mage = 54.94 years; 55.3% female) data from the Midlife in the US (MIDUS) study were collected across two time points spanning a decade (Minterval = 9.09 years). A cross-lagged panel model with spiritual mindfulness, sense of control, and psychological well-being was estimated using full information maximum likelihood estimation to investigate cross-time and reciprocal associations. Reciprocal associations were found between spiritual mindfulness and sense of control and between sense of control and psychological well-being. There was no reciprocal association between spiritual mindfulness and psychological well-being; spiritual mindfulness at the earlier time point was associated with psychological well-being a decade later, but the reverse path was not significant. The study's findings suggest permanence in these spiritual mindfulness associations over long period of time. The results also suggest that sense of control may be important when we consider spiritual mindfulness and well-being in middle-aged and older adults.

Comparable studies

Other observational and cohort studies on meditation, most cited first.

Study Year Design Participants
Using Self-Report Assessment Methods to Explore Facets of Mindfulness Undergraduate students 2006 Observational cohort
Effectiveness of a meditation-based stress reduction program in the treatment of anxiety disorders Patients with generalized anxiety disorder or panic disorder with or without agoraphobia 1992 Observational cohort n = 22
Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness Participants with extensive Insight meditation experience and matched controls 2005 Observational cohort n = 20
Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity Experienced meditators and matched meditation-naive controls 2011 Observational cohort
Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice Long-term Buddhist practitioners and controls 2004 Observational cohort

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