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Neuroimaging studies of extra-sensory perception: A systematic and critical review.

David J Acunzo, Andrea H Denton, Marina Weiler, Edward F. Kelly

Neuroimage June 1, 2026 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2026.121937 (opens in new tab)

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AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Systematic review Peer reviewed
Topics Altered states of consciousness
Keywords Anomalous cognition Anomalous experiences Intuition Presentiment Remote viewing Replication crisis
Key findings Definitive conclusions about the neural correlates of ESP remain premature due to recurrent methodological limitations and heterogeneous findings.

Abstract

Research efforts spanning more than seven decades have used functional neuroimaging to investigate whether putative extra‑sensory perception (ESP/receptive psi) has identifiable neural correlates. However, the field lacks a coherent and critical synthesis of its methodological approaches and reported effects. We conducted a systematic review consolidating 143 reports and qualitatively evaluated the methods of 129 individual studies. We organized studies by paradigm using two broad categories: (1) explicit psi paradigms (including forced-choice and free-response design subcategories), in which psi is assessed via overt responses; and (2) implicit psi paradigms (including distant stimulation, distant intentionality, and predictive anticipatory activity subcategories), in which psi is assessed solely via neurophysiology. Most work relied on EEG (91%), followed by fMRI (5%). We identified recurrent methodological limitations, in particular, small sample sizes, inadequate multiple‑comparison control, and analytical flexibility. Explicit paradigms rarely showed above‑chance behavior, yet investigators frequently proceeded to neural analyses, implying unacknowledged shifts in the operational definition of psi. Implicit paradigms often reported psi‑consistent effects, but findings were heterogeneous and seldom replicated. Overall, definitive conclusions about the neural correlates of ESP remain premature. Nevertheless, we identify potential leads-such as alpha‑band power in forced-choice designs, and a target‑related negative slow wave in event‑related designs-as testable candidates for future research. We provide a set of 13 methodological recommendations to promote cumulative progress, as well as 6 recommendations for future research directions.

Comparable studies

Other systematic reviews and meta-analyses on altered states of consciousness, most cited first.

Study Year Design Participants
The role of non-ordinary states of consciousness occasioned by mind-body practices in mental health illness. 2023 Systematic review
Anomalous Cognition: An Umbrella Review of the Meta-Analytic Evidence 2022 Systematic review
The Altered States of Consciousness in Transpersonal Approach Psychotherapy: Systematic Review and Guidelines for Research and Clinical Practice. Adults, mostly women 2019 Systematic review n = 14
The Induction of Dissociative States: A Meta-Analysis. Individuals from clinical and nonclinical samples 2025 Meta-analysis n = 6,692
Ketamine-induced altered states of consciousness: a systematic review of implications for therapeutic outcomes in psychiatric practices. Patients with mood disorders (major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder), substance... 2024 Systematic review n = 29

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