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“Becoming Your Own Psychologist”: Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPSs) for Mood and Anxiety Disorder Self-Medication

Tayler Holborn, Fabrizio Schifano, Emma E Smith, Paolo Deluca

Psychoactives August 20, 2025 DOI: 10.3390/psychoactives4030028 (opens in new tab)

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Study at a glance

AI-extracted from the abstract
Characteristics Cross-sectional survey with qualitative interviews Peer reviewed
Sample size 274
Population Individuals self-medicating with novel psychoactive substances for depression or anxiety
Topics Anxiety
Keywords Mood Clinical psychology Psychotherapist
Citations 1
Key findings Individuals self-medicating with NPS perceived these substances as more effective than conventional treatment, and self-medication typically followed failed conventional treatment.

Abstract

Numerous individuals suffer from mental health issues including depression and anxiety, resulting in substantial societal burden. Data suggests individuals are choosing to self-medicate with Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS); however, this phenomenon is poorly understood. We aimed to investigate which NPS are being used to self-medicate, evaluate their perceived effectiveness and examine influencing factors. Data from respondents (n = 274) (Mean Age [SD] = 29.8 ± 9.1, Male = 71%, Female = 18%, non-binary 5%) were collected via an online survey, with five participants (male = 2; nonbinary = 3) undertaking further semi-structured interviews and the data examined using a Framework analysis. NPS used included bromazolam, etizolam, clonazolam, 1P-LSD and 2-FDCK. Individuals perceived self-medication to be more effective than conventional treatment (p < 0.001). A Framework analysis identified the following themes surrounding mood and anxiety disorder self-medication: (1) depression being chronic, treatment resistant and often comorbid; (2) individuals attempting to mimic existing treatments; (3) individuals having high levels of pharmacological knowledge; (4) difficulties in controlling benzodiazepine self-medication. This study brings important insight into self-medication practices with NPSs, adding to data demonstrating an increase in bromazolam use. Data suggests self-medication follows conventional treatment and, therefore, we outline the importance of affordable emerging treatment options for depression and anxiety.

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Extended difficulties following the use of psychedelic drugs: A mixed methods study Participants who reported extended difficulties following psychedelic experiences 2023 Convergent mixed-method study n = 608
Mindfulness and compassion-oriented practices at work reduce distress and enhance self-care of palliative care teams: a mixed-method evaluation of an “on the job“ program Interdisciplinary palliative care team staff 2017 Observational mixed-method pilot evaluation n = 28

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