There is broad agreement that hypnotic suggestions alter subjective experience, not just observable behavior, but no consensus exists on the theoretical explanation for these experiential changes. The debate between 'state' and 'nonstate' views centers on whether a special internal state is necessary to explain hypnosis. Placing this disagreement within a multilevel explanatory framework reveals that the conflict is about the appropriate level of description for the phenomenon. A novel multilevel approach is proposed to generate empirically testable hypotheses about hypnosis, aiming to integrate hypnosis research with multidisciplinary consciousness studies.
A survey of contemporary perspectives on altered states of consciousness introduces commentaries on Kallio and Revonsuo's lead article. The study of consciousness, unconscious processing, and altered states is central to neuroscience, offering fresh approaches to understanding hypnosis, including combining new neurophysiological methods with phenomenological reports. Research on alterations in anterior brain processes, particularly the anterior cingulate cortex and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, is productive. The lack of engagement with neuroscientific evidence from theorists with purely social and cognitive orientations to hypnosis is noted, with examples from attention and relaxation research. Unifying the field requires active collaboration between scientists with neurophysiological and social orientations.
The concept of lucid dreaming was first named by Dutch psychiatrist Frederik Willems van Eeden in 1913, though descriptions of the phenomenon appear in Aristotle's writings. Modern research began in 1980 when LaBerge introduced a method for physiological investigation using eye signals. Current efforts aim to define the neurophysiological correlates of lucid dreaming, a goal not yet achieved. One application is in psychotherapy, mainly for treating nightmares, but other therapeutic potentials remain undiscovered and offer opportunities for future research.