Consciousness, determinism, and free will in nineteenth-century Portuguese medical thought: Resonances with contemporary neuroscience.
Journal of the history of the neurosciences January 1, 2026 Ricardo Serrado
In nineteenth-century Portugal, physicians Miguel Bombarda, Júlio de Matos, and Bettencourt Raposo debated consciousness and free will as biological advances challenged the soul as a regulating principle. Bombarda defended a materialist view, arguing free will is merely neuronal activity producing the feeling of freedom. Matos embraced determinism, rejecting absolute freedom but allowing behavioral modulation through education and effort, creating an unstable compatibilist position. Raposo advanced a naturalistic view where the brain constitutes will and desire, leaving no room for genuine freedom. The article examines how determinism, materialism, and positivism shaped medical thought on consciousness and free will within a naturalistic framework.