Loneliness in the Digital Age: Perspectives from Sufism and Psychology and the Potential Contribution of Sufism to Coping with Loneliness

Abstract

This article seeks to demonstrate the theoretical and practical contribution that the Sufi tradition can make to loneliness, a phenomenon that has become increasingly widespread in the digital age and is largely coded as negative in the modern period. To this end, the phenomenon of loneliness, deepened over the last two decades by the spread of internet and social media technologies, is evaluated comparatively in Western and Turkish contexts, after which Sufism’s perspective on loneliness and its possible contributions are explored at the theoretical and practical levels. The study follows a qualitative design combining a broad literature survey of national and international quantitative and qualitative research on loneliness in psychology and sociology with conceptual analysis of digitalization and social transformation, and conceptual-hermeneutic interpretation of classical Sufi texts and selected tariqa practices. Sufi conceptualizations of loneliness, namely khalwa, ʿuzla, waḥsha, and uns, were interpreted through close textual analysis, drawing primarily on classical Sufi authorities such as Ibn al-ʿArabī, al-Qushayrī, al-Ghazālī, al-Ṭūsī, and Hujwīrī. The Naqshbandī principle of khalwa dar anjuman was further examined as a distinctive model for combining outward sociability with inward companionship with God. According to the findings, loneliness in the West has risen significantly since 2005, alongside digitalization; the World Health Organization has designated loneliness a global public health concern, and the United Kingdom has established a Ministry of Loneliness in response. As Putnam’s classic study of American civic life showed, the decline of social capital and voluntary participation forms part of the historical background of this process. Similarly, in Türkiye, the risk of loneliness has increased with digitalization and individualization. TÜİK data confirm a marked rise in single-person households, and a significant positive relationship between social media use and loneliness has been observed, especially among young people. The continuing relative influence of religious-spiritual orientation and a culture of solidarity in Türkiye, however, supports the finding that religiosity and Sufi-oriented approaches have positive effects on loneliness, suggesting that religiosity may play a protective role against loneliness in Turkish society. The article’s main contribution lies in its comparative treatment of loneliness in Western and Turkish societies and its in-depth exploration, building on limited existing scholarship -most notably Kızılgeçit and Uyar-, of the theoretical and practical contribution that the Sufi tradition can offer to this problem. In Sufism, loneliness is conceptualized not only as a negative state but also as an opportunity for spiritual evolution and inner purification; practices such as ṣuḥba, khidma, and dhikr circles are analyzed as functional mechanisms that reduce loneliness. The study further introduces the concept of “digital ʿuzla” to the literature, proposing that classical voluntary withdrawal can be reinterpreted as a deliberate form of digital disengagement suited to the contemporary age, and identifies functional parallels between this and modern therapeutic practices such as cognitive reframing, mindfulness, group therapy, and volunteering. As a result, the article confirms that loneliness has become a global problem in the digital age and argues that Sufism’s theoretical approach, together with the revival of practice centers such as tekkes and tariqas, can provide important and lasting benefits for the integration of psychological and spiritual support. While making an interdisciplinary contribution to loneliness research, the study emphasizes that the spiritual dimension should not be ignored and should be applied within the framework of an experienced, authentic tradition.