Real-World Therapeutic Use of Ketamine in Clinical and Non-Clinical Settings: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Omer A. Syed, Rotem Petranker, Sean M. Nestor, Muhammad Ishrat Husain, Nir Lipsman, Fahad Alam, Peter Giacobbe, Stephanie Lake, Philippe Lucas
Journal of Psychoactive Drugs September 23, 2026 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2026.2730550 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational survey study Cross-sectional Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 460 |
| Population | People who reported using ketamine, recruited through the 2023 Global Psychedelic Survey, divided into clinical (medically supervised) and non-clinical (self-medicating) users |
| Intervention | Ketamine |
| Topics | Esketamine Ketamine |
| Key findings | Ketamine was rated similarly and highly effective for mood symptoms by both medically supervised and non-clinical users (mean 83.3 vs 81.2 on a 0-100 scale). Non-clinical users had higher odds of reporting long-term hallucinations following ketamine use (OR = 2.58, 95% CI: 1.08-6.31), which the authors highlight as a potential risk of use without medical supervision. |
Abstract
The use of ketamine as a treatment for mood disorders continues to grow in popularity. However, the differences between individuals consuming ketamine within clinical settings and those self-medicating in casual, non-clinical settings has not been yet characterized. Using the 2023 Global Psychedelic Survey, this study aimed to examine the demographic and clinical characteristics, as well as the self-reported effectiveness and hallucination-related side effects, of ketamine use by comparing individuals using ketamine with and without medical supervision. Compared to clinical ketamine consumers (n = 238), non-clinical consumers (n = 222) were more experienced in use of various psychedelic (p < .0001) and non-psychedelic recreational substances (p < .001), and lifetime use of ketamine (p < .0001). Both groups presented with similar mild depression and anxiety symptoms at the time of the survey collection (p = .22, p = .46). Ketamine was similarly and highly rated in effectiveness within both groups when rated on a scale of 0–100 (83.3 ± 15.0 clinical, 81.2 ± 16.6 non-clinical; p = .45). Non-clinical consumers presented higher odds of reporting long-term hallucinations following ketamine use (OR = 2.58, 95% CI: 1.08–6.31). The results of this study indicate a high self-reported effectiveness of ketamine in clinical and non-clinical settings while emphasizing the potential risks of side effects when used without medical supervision.
Comparable studies
Other cross-sectional and survey studies on ketamine, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5-Year Trends in Use of Hallucinogens and Other Adjunct Drugs among UK Dance Drug Users People who use drugs in dance contexts | 2006 | Repeated-measures cross-sectional survey | |
| Preliminary analysis of positive and negative syndrome scale in ketamine-associated psychosis in comparison with schizophrenia Healthy subjects, ketamine abusers, and schizophrenia patients | 2014 | Cross-sectional study | n = 998 |
| Ketamine as a primary predictor of out-of-body experiences associated with multiple substance use Online survey respondents | 2011 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 192 |
| Self-reported prevalence of dependence of MDMA compared to cocaine, mephedrone and ketamine among a sample of recreational poly-drug users Global non-treatment-seeking sample of last year users of MDMA, cocaine, mephedrone,... | 2014 | Cross-sectional survey | |
| Near-Death States Reported in a Sample of 50 Misusers Previous ketamine misusers who reported a ketamine-related near-death experience | 2010 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 50 |
Citations in the library
Cites 54
- A Randomized Trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate Antagonist in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression Archives of General Psychiatry August 1, 2006
- A Consensus Statement on the Use of Ketamine in the Treatment of Mood Disorders JAMA Psychiatry March 1, 2017
- Side-effects associated with ketamine use in depression: a systematic review. The Lancet Psychiatry 2018
- Single, Repeated, and Maintenance Ketamine Infusions for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial. American Journal of Psychiatry March 29, 2019
- Great Expectations: recommendations for improving the methodological rigor of psychedelic clinical trials Psychopharmacology April 1, 2022
and 49 more in the library