The Cathinone Hydra: Increased Cathinone and caffeine adulteration in the English MDMA market after Brexit and COVID-19 lockdowns
Pascoe Mj, S Radley, Simmons Htd
Drug Science, Policy and Law 2022 DOI: 10.1177/20503245221099209 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Observational study Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 1,648 |
| Population | Surrendered substances at three English summer music festivals in 2019 and 2021, plus 1124 festival attendees surveyed at the same events |
| Topics | MDMA |
| Key findings | Detection of MDMA in samples resembling MDMA fell from 93% in 2019 to 55% in 2021, while synthetic cathinones and caffeine each rose from near absence to about one fifth of 2021 samples. Survey data indicate that cathinone and caffeine use was largely unintentional, as 1% or fewer attendees reported using them despite over 35% reporting MDMA use or intent. |
Abstract
Adulteration poses additional unknown risks to the health of people who use illicit drugs. In this study, we sought to determine the extent and nature of adulteration of ‘MDMA’ in circulation at English summer music festivals in 2021, following Brexit, COVID-19 lockdowns and various regulatory changes overseas. At three festivals in 2019 and 2021, 1648 surrendered substances were analysed with Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and colourimetric reagents in a mobile laboratory as part of a harm reduction project. Form, mass, appearance and main psychoactive component were recorded. Analytical results were compared to a parallel self-report survey with 1124 attendees at the same events, as part of the annual English Festival Study. In 2019 and 2021, 417 and 377 samples strongly resembling MDMA (e.g. ecstasy tablets) were tested. Detection of MDMA in such samples decreased from 93% to 55% between the two years. Whilst virtually absent in 2019, synthetic cathinones and caffeine each constituted approximately one fifth of 2021 samples. 4-Chloromethcathinone (4-CMC), 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC) and N-ethylbutylone (eutylone) were the most prevalent cathinones detected. In both years, >35% of survey respondents reported use and/or intention to use MDMA on the fieldwork day; ≤1% reported cathinone or caffeine use, suggesting their consumption was predominantly unintentional. The sharp rise in synthetic cathinone prevalence in the summer 2021 UK market coincided with a unique combination of events including Brexit and the reopening of nightlife after 16 months of lockdowns, months ahead of other European nations. Echoing similar periods over the past decade, the cathinone hydra reared its head to satisfy the buoyant demand for MDMA at a time of scarcity, through substitution with substances legally obtainable in the Netherlands at the time of data collection. Alerts issued on social media led to >360,000 engagements, demonstrating extensive public engagement with illicit market monitoring and harm reduction advice.
Comparable studies
Other observational and cohort studies on MDMA, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subjective Reports of the Effects of MDMA in a Clinical Setting Individuals who took MDMA in a clinical setting | 1986 | Observational study | |
| Memory impairment in abstinent MDMA ("Ecstasy") users Abstinent MDMA users | 1998 | Observational cohort | |
| Impaired cognitive performance in drug free users of recreational ecstasy (MDMA) Otherwise healthy young people | 2000 | Observational | |
| The Psychological and Physiological Effects of MDMA on Normal Volunteers Older, more educated, drug-experienced individuals | 1986 | Observational cohort | |
| Cognitive performance in recreational users of MDMA or 'ecstasy': evidence for memory deficits Young people who were regular or novice MDMA users, or non-users | 1998 | Observational cohort | n = 30 |
Citations in the library
Cited by 6
- Harm reduction behaviours and harm experiences of people who use 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in Aotearoa New Zealand. Harm Reduction Journal March 21, 2024
- Novel harm reduction measures at music festivals in Australia: Pilot implementation of the Emerging Drugs Network of Australia-Victoria toxicosurveillance methodology. Drug and Alcohol Review November 1, 2024
- A thematic analysis of MDMA-related harm and harm reduction experiences and knowledge in Aotearoa New Zealand. Harm Reduction Journal May 23, 2024
- Risk communication about high-dose MDMA: Impact of a hypothetical drug alert on future MDMA use. Drug and Alcohol Review May 1, 2025
- Size matters: comparing the MDMA content and weight of ecstasy tablets submitted to European drug checking services in 2012–2021 Drugs, Habits and Social Policy November 24, 2022
and 1 more in the library
Cites 6
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