The influence of the theory and methods of Chinese traditional culture on modern western psychotherapy: a cross-cultural dialogue

Abstract

Historically, before the origination of modern psychotherapy, those in distress turn to temples and Daoist sanctuaries to seek relief from their worries and perplexities. Monks and priests, through their teachings and guidance, often fulfilled the role that today we would recognize as akin to a counselor or psychotherapist.As one of the world's four ancient civilizations, China has cultivated a long-standing tradition of mental health care. The philosophies of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism have been especially effective in easing distress and suffering, offering indigenous approaches to psychological well-being. In today's context of cultural confidence and the national "Healthy China" strategy, recovering and advancing the traditional principles and methods of tiao xin (调心)-the regulation and harmonization of the mind-holds great significance for addressing the mental health needs of modern society.Among the traditions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, it is Buddhism that most directly addresses the afflictions ofthe mind. According to Buddhist philosophy, human beings perceive the phenomenal world-se, sheng, xiang, wei, chu,fa (色、声、香、味、触、 法: form, sound, fragrance, taste, touch, and mental objects)-through the six faculties ofyan, er, bi, she, shen, yi (眼、耳、鼻、舌、身、意: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind). Because of wu ming (无明, ignorance; avidyā), people misapprehend these phenomena and develop dualistic judgments-existence versus non-existence, good versus evil, beauty versus ugliness. Clinging to such discriminations (fen bie xin, 分别心, discriminative mind) gives rise to shou, xiang, xing, shi (受、想、行、识: sensation, perception, volition, and consciousness), which in turn engenderfan nao (烦恼, klesha, mental afflictions) and suffering.In this framework, the Buddhist account of how ordinary beings fall into distress can be mapped as: phenomena (色, se) → sensory faculties (六根, six sense bases) → discriminative mind (分别心, fen bie xin) → clinging to self (wo zhi, 我执; ātma-grāha) → afflictions (fan nao, 烦恼).If reframed in the language of modern psychology-echoing Jung's account of the sequence from perception to judgment-the process can be expressed as: material phenomena → perception → evaluation → emotions and desires → distress.Sincefan nao (mental afflictions) arise through the dynamic interplay of self and environment, the traditions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism all offer methods of tiao xin (调心, regulation of mind) that intervene at different stages: Within the traditions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism-most explicitly in Buddhism-in which practices featuring perception (gan zhi, 感知) begin with stillness. All three traditions advocate sitting meditation (jing zuo, 静坐) as a foundational discipline.• In Confucianism,jing zuo mediates "regulation of body" (tiao shen, 调身), aligning posture and comportment with moral enrichment. • In Buddhism,jing zuo functioned to "regulate the mind" (tiao xin, 调心), calming and stabilizing awareness. Related practices included guan chan (观禅, insight meditation), guan hu xi (观呼吸, mindfulness of breathing), guan nian tou (观念头, observing thoughts), and bu xing chan (步行禅, walking meditation).• In Daoism,jing zuo was directed toward health cultivation (yang sheng, 养生), nourishing inner vitality and harmony with the Dao.Together, these practices fostered refined sensory awareness and mindful presence as a way of attuning body and mind.Based on long-term practical experience, the traditions of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism recognized that discursive thinking (si wei huo dong, 思维活动) generates afflictions (fan nao, 烦恼) and obstructs the realization of the Way (wu dao, 悟道). A gongan (public case) recorded in Jingde Chuandeng Lu (《景德传灯录》) recounts that Chan Master ZhiXian (Zhi Xian chan shi, 智闲禅师) in his early years extensively studied sutras under Master Baizhang but failed to awaken to the Chan mystery. Feeling that his intellectual pursuit of words was like "drawing a cake to satisfy hunger" (hua bing chong ji, 画饼充饥) and of no benefit to the Way, he burned all his collected writings. One day, by chance, he tossed a tile fragment that struck a bamboo stalk, producing a clear, sharp sound. Suddenly, he experienced great enlightenment (da wu, 大悟). He then composed a verse: "With one strike, all that was known is forgotten; no need for further cultivation." This story illustrates how the sound of the tile striking bamboo shattered the constraints of linguistic concepts, leading to instantaneous realization. It elucidates Chan Buddhism's emphasis on perception and its doctrine of sudden enlightenment (dun wu, 顿悟), which requires no deliberate cultivation.To regulate the mind (tiao xin, 调心), all three traditions value perception (gan zhi, 感知 ). A key practice method for enhancing perception is sitting meditation (jing zuo, 静坐).In Confucianism, jing zuo mediates the "regulation of the body" (tiao shen, 调身). Mencius (Mengzi, 孟子), Xunzi (Xunzi, 荀子), and Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi, 朱熹) all practiced regular sitting meditation.In Buddhism, jing zuo functions to "regulate the mind" (tiao xin, 调心). Sitting meditation (da zuo, 打坐) is the most commonly used Buddhist practice. The Heart Sutra (Xin Jing, 《心经》) opens with a scene of sitting meditation: "Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, when practicing deeply the Prajnaparamita, perceives that all five aggregates are empty, and is saved from all suffering and distress." Related practices include insight meditation (guan chan, 观禅), mindfulness of breathing (guan hu xi, 观呼吸), observing thoughts (guan nian tou, 观念头), and walking meditation (bu xing chan, 步行禅).In Daoism, jing zuo is primarily a method for "nourishing life" (yang sheng, 养生). The Daodejing (《道德经》) states: "Attain ultimate emptiness; abide firmly in stillness." The Zhuangzi (《庄子》) contains concepts such as "sitting in forgetfulness" (zuo wang, 坐 忘) and "fasting of the mind" (xin zhai, 心斋). According to the Zhuangzi, the Yellow Emperor once sought the secret of longevity from a sage named Guang Chengzi (Guang Chengzi, 广成子), who replied: "Look at nothing, listen to nothing; keep your spirit still and your body will correct itself. Be still, be pure; do not weary your body, do not disturb your vitality, and you will live long. When the eyes see nothing, the ears hear nothing, and the mind knows nothing, your spirit will guard your body, and your body will endure forever."Because perception is immediate, all three traditions emphasize dwelling in the present moment (dang xia, 当下). A well-known Chan Buddhist gongan illustrates this: "Better go drink tea." Two monks arrived at Zhaozhou's monastery. Master Congshen (Cong Shen chan shi, 从谂禅师) asked one, "Have you been here before?" The monk replied, "Yes." The master said, "Go drink tea" (chi cha qu, 吃茶去). He then asked the other monk, who replied, "No." The master also said, "Go drink tea." Later, the monastery's steward asked the master, "Why did you tell both monks-one who had been here and one who had not-to go drink tea?" The master replied, "Go drink tea." The meaning is clear: let go of thoughts about past and future, return to the present moment, and simply drink tea.In terms of awareness, modern Gestalt therapy posits that the brain's functions can be divided into three zones: (1) the outer zone, which involves seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting through our sensory organs such as the eyes, ears, and nose; (2) the middle zone, referring to the cerebral cortex, which governs cognitive activities such as perception, judgment, and logic; and (3) the inner zone, which refers to brain regions responsible for emotional experiences and bodily responses, such as the limbic system.Modern people tend to overemphasize the analytical function of the brain (the middle zone) while neglecting sensation (the outer zone) and emotion (the inner zone). This imbalance in utilizing the three brain zones causes excessive energy to be concentrated in thinking, leading to wandering thoughts and unnecessary afflictions. As a result, people eat without truly tasting their food, are mentally elsewhere while physically present, and experience a disconnection between body and mind. Therefore, modern individuals need to readjust the focus of brain energy and strengthen perception.Judgment (pan duan, 判断) is an analytical thinking activity of the cerebral cortex. When excessive energy is consumed in this area, individuals become unable to experience the present moment (dang xia, 当下), leading to afflictions (fan nao, 烦恼).In Buddhism, particular emphasis is placed on awareness of the present moment. A similar stance characterizes Gestalt therapy, which regards its central feature as the focus on "the here and now." Gestalt therapy holds that modern individuals often fail to live in the present, neglecting the immediacy of perception. Instead, they cling to memories of the past or fantasies of the future, which in effect serve as an avoidance of present-moment experience. In both Buddhist practice and Gestalt therapy, cultivating awareness of"this very moment" is considered essential-believing that learning to observe, know, and feel the fullness of the present as the primary gateway to healing.Gestalt therapy also resonates with the Buddhist emphasis on awareness (jue zhi, 觉知), highlighting the balance of different modes of brain function. In this framework, brain activity can be divided into three domains:1. Outer brain region-sensory inputs received through the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. 2. Middle brain region-the cerebral cortex, responsible for cognition, evaluation, and logical reasoning. 3. Inner brain region-areas governing emotional experience and somatic response, such as the limbic system.Modern life, Gestalt theorists suggest, has led to an over-reliance on the middle brain's analytic function, while neglecting sensory perception (outer brain) and emotional attunement (inner brain). This imbalance concentrates excessive energy on discursive thinking, generating restless thoughts (wang nian, 妄念) and thereby increasingfan nao (烦恼, mental afflictions). As a result, one may lose the ability to taste food fully, find the body present but the mind elsewhere, and experience a split between body and mind. To restore balance, modern individuals must re-adjust their emphasis, learning once again to value sensation and embodied presence. In matters ofjudgment, Confucianism advocates the Doctrine of the Mean (zhongyong, 中庸). The Shang Shu (《尚书•大禹谟》) states: "The human heart is perilous, the Dao-heart subtle; be refined, unified, and hold faithfully to the Mean (允执厥中)". Here, yun zhi jue zhong (允执厥中) signifies speaking and acting without deviation, embodying a balanced, impartial way.In Buddhism,fen bie xin (分别心, the discriminative mind) is identified as a root cause of fan nao (烦恼, klesha, mental afflictions). To counteract this, Buddhism teaches the gate of non-duality (bu erfa men, 不二法门), which dissolves clinging to dualistic distinctions such as existence and non-existence. In Chan (Zen) practice, this is expressed through methods such as can hua tou (参话头, meditative inquiry into a koan),jifeng (机锋, sharp repartee), and the use of shouts and blows (bang he, 棒喝) to break through conceptual fixation.Daoism, for its part, presents the doctrine of Qi Wu Lun (齐物论, "Equalizing Things"), expressed in the words of Zhuangzi: "Heaven and I are born together; the ten thousand things and I are one." This contains both qi wu (齐物)-the view that the multiplicity of things is ultimately one-and qi lun (齐论)-the recognition that differing perspectives and judgments are, in essence, without absolute right or wrong.Similar to Buddhism's critique of wang nian (妄念, deluded thoughts) andfen bie xin (discriminative cognition), Western rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and Beck's cognitive therapy hold that the source of emotional and behavioral problems lies not in external events themselves, but in people's interpretations of those events. Cognition-one's recognition and appraisal of reality-serves as the mediator between event and affliction. Distorted, irrational, or rigid elements in cognition (cognitive distortions, such as negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional schemas) are core contributors to emotional disturbance and psychological suffering. By modifying maladaptive cognitions, negative emotions and behaviors can be reduced. The Buddhist aim of overcomingfen bie xin parallels the goals of cognitive therapy: transforming one's interpretation of events, breaking through distorted cognition, dissolving wang nian, and ultimately achieving ming xinjian xing (明心见性, illuminating the mind and seeing one's true nature)-though the methods differ.Postmodern psychology likewise challenges the notion of objective judgment. It posits that the world is not an independent reality but a subjective construction, that knowledge is co-created through dialogue rather than bestowed by authority, and that language is a cultural product rather than a vessel of eternal truth. Narrative therapy, a prominent postmodern approach, employs the questioning of"objective judgment" as a therapeutic tool. It argues that many standards, beliefs, values, expectations, and conventions-taken for granted as "judgments"-are socially constructed discourses, produced through cultural context and interpersonal interaction. These discourses regulate people's thoughts and behaviors, shaping them into "healthy" or "normal" persons, and thus reflect mechanisms of social power and control. Yet such beliefs and customs are not immutable truths; they evolve with historical change. For example, attitudes toward out-of-wedlock pregnancy have shifted significantly across time.In the late 1960s, transpersonal psychology, emerging from the foundations of humanistic psychology, drew profound influence from Buddhism and meditative practices. It sought to integrate the wisdom of global spiritual traditions into modern psychology. Central to this movement is the view that the human being is a unity of body, mind, and spirit. 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