A semi-randomised control trial assessing psychophysiological effects of breathwork and cold immersion.
Nadia Fox, Hannah Biddell, Jemma King
Scientific Reports December 12, 2025 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-29187-9 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Semi-randomised controlled trial Randomized Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 404 |
| Population | Healthy adults (226 females, 177 males, 1 other; mean age 37) |
| Intervention | mindfulness meditation |
| Duration | 29-day intervention |
| Topics | Breathwork |
| Keywords | Allostatic load Cold exposure Cyclic breathing Executive function Hormesis Physiology Stress Wim hof method |
| Key findings | The Wim Hof Method produced greater momentary improvements in energy, mental clarity, and ability to handle stress than mindfulness meditation, with cumulative benefits over 29 days. |
Abstract
The paradoxical nature of stress lies in its ability to both enhance and hinder psychological, physiological, and cognitive functioning. While chronic stress impairs functioning, acute stress can enhance resilience, cognition, and performance. We examined whether intentional short-term stress induced by cyclic hyperventilation and cold exposure (the Wim Hof Method (WHM)) improves psychophysiological and cognitive outcomes compared to an active control (mindfulness meditation). In this semi-randomised controlled trial, healthy adults (N = 404; 226 females, 177 males, 1 other; mean age = 37) completed one of three 29-day interventions: WHM in-person, WHM-remote, or meditation. Measures included physiological and sleep biometrics, executive function tests, and psychometric event sampling surveys (state and trait change). WHM conditions showed greater momentary improvements in self-reported energy, mental clarity, and ability to handle stress following daily protocol compared with meditation. Although WHM protocols initially resulted in smaller reductions in self-reported state stress, their impact increased across days on protocol, while the impact of meditation decreased. A similar time-condition interaction was also observed for energy, mental clarity, and ability to handle stress, suggesting cumulative, dose-dependent benefits. While minimal significant between-condition trait changes emerged over 29-days, state interaction patterns suggest potential for longer-term state-trait shifts. Executive function, physiological, and sleep results showed nuanced between-condition differences.
Comparable studies
Other randomized controlled trials on breathwork, most cited first.
Citations in the library
Cites 8
- Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being JAMA Internal Medicine January 6, 2014
- The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin May 14, 2012
- Brief structured respiration practices enhance mood and reduce physiological arousal Cell Reports Medicine 2023
- Does the Wim Hof Method have a beneficial impact on physiological and psychological outcomes in healthy and non-healthy participants? A systematic review. PLoS One 2024
- The positive effects of combined breathing techniques and cold exposure on perceived stress: a randomised trial Current Psychology October 7, 2022
and 3 more in the library