Beyond Universality: Do All Adolescent Minds Benefit from Mindfulness?

Abstract

Despite the rapid global implementation of school-based mindfulness trainings (SBMTs), empirical findings regarding their effectiveness in children and adolescents remain inconsistent. Large-scale trials and recent meta-analyses have challenged early optimism, raising critical questions about for whom, under what conditions, and through which mechanisms SBMTs may be beneficial. This paper provides a synthesis of key factors, grounded in both theory and practice, that may help explain why mindfulness interventions vary in their effectiveness for adolescents. Based on existing research and insights from implementing SBMTs in school settings, we examine four interrelated domains: (1) curriculum characteristics, with particular attention to the role of embodied, mind–body practices and practice dosage; (2) the contribution of teachers, including personal mindfulness practice, embodiment, and relational engagement; (3) developmental considerations related to age, metacognitive capacity, and ethical challenges in assessment; and (4) contextual influences at the level of the school ecosystem and broader sociocultural environment. We argue that assuming universal effectiveness can overlook important sources of variability and may help explain the null or even negative outcomes reported in some studies. By reframing SBMTs as context-sensitive, developmentally attuned, and relationally embedded practices, this paper advances a conceptual framework to guide future research, intervention design, and implementation in educational settings.