Ketamine use in a large global sample: Characteristics, patterns of use and emergency medical treatment.
Karen P Barrios, Dean J Connolly, Jason Ferris, Larissa J. Maier, Monica J Barratt, Adam Winstock, Cheneal Puljević, Gail Gilchrist
Journal of Psychopharmacology 2025 DOI: 10.1177/02698811241273850 (opens in new tab)
Study at a glance
AI-extracted from the abstract| Characteristics | Cross-sectional survey Peer reviewed |
|---|---|
| Sample size | 130,761 |
| Population | Respondents to the Global Drug Survey 2018, predominantly from Germany, England, and Denmark |
| Topics | Ketamine Esketamine |
| Keywords | Emergency medical treatment Global drug survey Ketamine use patterns Past-year ketamine use Key risk factors Younger age Student status Concurrent substance use Exceedingly rare Over 130 000 responses |
| Citations | 17 |
| Key findings | Past-year ketamine use is associated with younger age, gay sexual orientation, student status, and concurrent substance use, yet emergency medical treatment for ketamine-related adverse events is exceedingly rare (less than 0.10% of past-year users). |
Abstract
Ketamine's popularity has surged globally in the past decade, especially among young men. Emergency department visits due to its toxicity remain relatively rare, often linked to co-occurring use of other substances. Using data from the Global Drug Survey (GDS) 2018, this study explored the correlates associated with lifetime and past-year ketamine use, and estimated the socio-demographic characteristics, usage patterns and experiences of respondents seeking emergency medical treatment (EMT) after ketamine use. Secondary analysis of GDS 2018, an online cross-sectional survey on drug use patterns conducted between November 2017 and January 2018. The survey received 130,761 valid responses, with 5.93% reporting lifetime ketamine use, of which 57.70% used ketamine within the past year. Predominantly, respondents were from Germany, England and Denmark. Within the past year, 8.55% met the criteria for ketamine dependence. Respondents who used ketamine in their lifetime tended to be young (mean (x̄) = 27.37 years), men, heterosexual and of white ethnicity. Younger age (x̄ = 24.84 years), gay sexual orientation, student status, past-year use of other drugs and no lifetime mental health diagnosis were associated with past-year ketamine use. Among 4477 respondents reporting past-year ketamine use, 120 adverse events were reported, with less than 0.10% prompting EMT seeking. The study reveals frequent ketamine use but low harm occurrence, underscoring the complex interplay between ketamine use, substance use and dependence, and related factors. This underscores the need to reassess EMT priorities, implement tailored harm reduction strategies and incorporate comprehensive screening for addressing ketamine and substance dependence challenges.
Comparable studies
Other cross-sectional and survey studies on ketamine, most cited first.
| Study | Year | Design | Participants |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5-Year Trends in Use of Hallucinogens and Other Adjunct Drugs among UK Dance Drug Users People who use drugs in dance contexts | 2006 | Repeated-measures cross-sectional survey | |
| Preliminary analysis of positive and negative syndrome scale in ketamine-associated psychosis in comparison with schizophrenia Healthy subjects, ketamine abusers, and schizophrenia patients | 2014 | Cross-sectional study | n = 998 |
| Ketamine as a primary predictor of out-of-body experiences associated with multiple substance use Online survey respondents | 2011 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 192 |
| Self-reported prevalence of dependence of MDMA compared to cocaine, mephedrone and ketamine among a sample of recreational poly-drug users Global non-treatment-seeking sample of last year users of MDMA, cocaine, mephedrone,... | 2014 | Cross-sectional survey | |
| Near-Death States Reported in a Sample of 50 Misusers Previous ketamine misusers who reported a ketamine-related near-death experience | 2010 | Cross-sectional survey | n = 50 |
Citations in the library
Cited by 13
- Rising incidence of recreational ketamine use: Clinical cases and management in emergency settings. Toxicology Reports June 1, 2025
- Trends in ketamine use among nightclub attendees in New York City, 2017-2024. International Journal of Drug Policy June 1, 2025
- Tusibí: Ni 2C-B ni “cocaína rosa” Health and Addictions/Salud y Drogas July 29, 2025
- A cross-national comparison of nonmedical and medical use of psychedelic drugs in the international cannabis policy study. International Journal of Drug Policy August 1, 2026
- Self-treatment of psychiatric conditions using ketamine: Patterns, characteristics, and retrospective insights. Journal of Psychopharmacology June 1, 2026
and 8 more in the library
Cites 22
- Subanesthetic Effects of the Noncompetitive NMDA Antagonist, Ketamine, in Humans Archives of General Psychiatry March 1, 1994
- Antidepressant Efficacy of Ketamine in Treatment-Resistant Major Depression: A Two-Site Randomized Controlled Trial American Journal of Psychiatry August 28, 2013
- Synthesizing the Evidence for Ketamine and Esketamine in Treatment-Resistant Depression: An International Expert Opinion on the Available Evidence and Implementation American Journal of Psychiatry March 17, 2021
- Ketamine use: a review Addiction July 21, 2011
- Single, Repeated, and Maintenance Ketamine Infusions for Treatment-Resistant Depression: A Randomized Controlled Trial. American Journal of Psychiatry March 29, 2019
and 17 more in the library